Brief Summary of Minutes of Annual Meeting

ACCOMPLISHMENTS: (full individual reports can be found on the W-1185 website [http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/biocon/W-1185,%20Western%20Regional%20Biological%20Control.htm] or can be obtained via the W-1185 Administrative Advisor, Dr. Donald Cooksey [Donald.cooksey@ucr.edu]). Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Pests for which surveys were conducted over that last year include: native leafminers in California; Liriomyza spp., Bactrocera spp., and A. destructor in American Samoa; Tamarix spp. in China, Israel, Greece and Central Asia; Centaurea solstitialis in Greece, Russia, Europe; lacewings (generalist predators) in the western U.S.; Japanese knotweed in Oregon; and aphids in Guam and Micronesia. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several agencies in the western states conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. The following list includes pests for which exploratory research was conducted: Dyers woad in Europe; perennial pepperweed in China; Acroptilon repens in Iran; lacewings (generalist predators) in Brazil; Thamnargus caucasicus in southern Russia; rush skeletonweed in Greece and Bulgaria; and olive fly in Africa. (see full reports for more information) Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. The systematics of Aphytis and Ablerus (Aphelinidae) and Paracentrobia (Trichogrammatidae) were revised. Ablerus are primary or secondary parasitoids of armored scale. A morphology based revision is underway for the New World species using molecular and morphological relationships of Aphytis. Systematics and comparative biological work continues for the Chrysopidae of the (a) USA and (b) New World. Priority is given to genera that have potential value to biological control and management strategies (e.g., Chrysoperla, Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes, Leucochrysa). Emphasis in 2004 was on the very large and taxonomically difficult genus Leucochrysa; this genus occurs throughout the New World. The work described, illustrated and developed keys for adults of the seven species that occur in the USA. Numerous names were synonymized; the trash-carrying larvae of four species were described; and all previously published and unpublished data on the biological characteristics of each species were provided. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. The extensive no-choice and multiple-choice host-range testing carried out in 2004 with Jaapiella ivannikovi (against Acroptilon repens) revealed that this gall midge is a highly specific, promising biological control agent with a significant impact on the target weeds reproductive output. Effective screening methods have been developed for the seed feeder Ceutorhynchus turbatus and the flea beetle Psylliodes wrasei. The host range of Gymnetron hispidum appears to be restricted to a few species in the genus Linaria in choice conditions, but it may be necessary to assess the impact of gall induction on some native North American Nuttallanthus and Sairocarpus spp. even when no complete larval development occurred. Progress has been made on another potential biological control agent, G. collinum. Host specificity testing has been initiated for the eriophyid mite, Aceria drabae, which induces compact, leafy galls that stunts Cardaria/Lepidium draba or prevents flowering. Two mite shipments for testing were received from the USDA-ARS-EBCL in Greece. Approximately 53 plant species (including 9 Lepidium species) plus numerous varieties of economic Brassica have been tested to date. The mite appears to be highly host specific, only infesting its natural host Lepidium draba. Host range testing of several olive fly parasitoids continued at UC-Berkeley, as well as testing parasitoids against the blue-green sharpshooter and the red-headed sharpshooter. CAB International conducted host-specificity studies on two insect species for biocontrol of houndstongue, Cynoglossum officinale. These insects include a seed weevil, Mogulones borraginis, and a root fly, Cheilosia pasquorum. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Citrus peelminer was reared on grapefruit and then zucchini as a host for the parasite C. coachellae. Parasites were shipped to the San Joaquin Valley for release against local populations of Marmara that have been found to support only a few solitary leafminer parasitoids. More than a thousand parasitoids have been shipped, but to date, no populations of C. coachellae are known to have successfully established. Workshops were conducted in Idaho, Washington and Nebraska during which more than 40,000 insect biocontrol agents for purple loosestrife, spotted and diffuse knapweed, and Dalmatian toadflax were distributed to participants along with educational materials and laminated biological control agent identification card sets. Diorhabda elongate was released on infestations of T. ramossisima in California and Nevada by USDA and in four other western states by cooperators in Colorado, Texas, Utah and Wyoming. Multiple releases of Mecinus janthinus were made against dalmation toadflax at strategic locations in OR in conjunction with USDA-APHIS. Several older sites are showing some promise in reducing target weed density. Adults of the chevroned waterhyacinth weevil, Neochetina bruchi, were released in May 2004, at a water canal choked with water hyacinth east of Stockton, San Joaquin County. The weevils were from two sources: 3,500 were collected, from a field site southeast of Stockton, the remaining weevils were from greenhouse colonies maintained in Sacramento. The release was for a field study by USDA-ARS to examine the relationship between plant nitrogen content and weevil attack on the plant. In 2004, the third parasite, Allotropa sp. nr. mecrida was released for M. hirsutus throughout the infested area in Imperial County and the Mexicali Valley in northern Mexico. Rearing efforts were continued on three biocontrol agents introduced against spotted knapweed, Centaurea maculosa: the root moth Agapeta zoegana, the root weevil Cyphocleonus achates, and the root moth Pelochrista medullana. Numerous releases of A. zoegana and C. achates were made throughout Montana. Climatic matching and pre-release performance evaluation were successful predictors of parasitoid establishment in a retrospective analysis of classical biological control program against Bemisia tabaci biotype B in the USA. The European seed eating weevil, Gymnetron tetrum, was collected from established stands of Verbascum thapsus and 750 adults were redistributed in Douglas County in central WA. An average infestation of this weevil results in about 50% of the weed's seed crop being consumed by the larvae. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the potential efficacy of natural enemies against invasive and indigenous pest species. Current work includes: monitoring of the abundance and impact of six biological control agents released for yellow starthistle control in Idaho. Studies focused on competitive interactions between Chaetorellia succinea and C. australis and the two weevils Eustenpopus villosus and Larinus curtus. Both larval and adult feeding studies were conducted for the saltcedar leafbeetle on one to two year old Tamarix plants. Studies showed beetle feeding and oviposition selectivity is not affected by host plant species or plant chemistry (nitrogen and salt content). Predation by ants, esp. Formica spp. reduces beetle populations. Post release studies showing the long-term efficacy of the crown root weevil Phrydiuchus tau against Salvia aethiopis are being conducted in conjunction with OR State Univ., USDA-ARS, and USDI-BLM. Sites with perennial vegetation, with the exception of salt desert scrub, are showing control of several orders of magnitude. A field study on the long-term impact of all established biological control agents on yellow starthistle populations continued at three sites in 2004. Plant populations have continued to decline and, in 2004, seedling and mature plant densities were low at all three sites. Studies on the impact of C. achates were continued. A study to assess the effect of the herbicides, 2,4-D and Transline on knapweed root insects was continued. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Many approaches are being utilized to determine the role of natural enemies within the host community. Current studies include: quantifying natural enemy populations and other sources of mortality impacting pest populations; examining feeding behavior of natural enemies among different crop varieties; using monoclonal antibodies to screen predators for the presence of pest species in their guts; conducting host discrimination studies; investigating parasitoid guilds; determining actual field parasitization rates; evaluating various pest management tactics that permit the preservation of the natural enemy complexes associated with established pest complexes; and knowledge of the selectivity of currently available pesticides and how their impact affects host availability. Results include: Life table studies of Bemisia tabaci that showed that predation was the key factor and accounted for the highest levels of irreplaceable mortality; rates of predation were correlated with densities of Geocoris spp., Orius tristicolor, Chrysoperla carnea and Lygus hesperus. Glassy-winged sharpshooter (GWSS) (Homalodisca coagulata)-specific ELISA and PCR assays have been developed. Key predators of GWSS will be identified by analyzing their gut contents for the presence of GWSS remains using these assays Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Pesticides, transgenic crops, and ant activity are just a few of the factors being evaluated with respect to disruption of biological control. Specific studies include: examining the seasonal occurrence and activity of native natural enemies to assess factors that could hinder their value against the brown citrus aphid that is expected to invade the region within a few years; studies of the influence of facultative symbionts of pea aphids on resistance to Aphidius ervi, which reveal an unrecognized aspect of host-parasitoid interactions; symbionts that play a defensive role in hosts may disrupt effective biological control. Acetamiprid, one of several new neonicotinoid insecticides, was demonstrated to have broad toxicity to Bemisia tabaci and a number of generalist predators in cotton. Although highly efficacious for pest control, results suggest that acetamiprid would be a poor substitute for the currently used IGRs in an integrated control program Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. No new progress reported. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. Research included: Comparative investigations at three different spatial scales revealed that Trichogramma deion exhibited the most efficient host searching and had the highest parasitization rates of P. interpunctella than did T. ostriniae or T. pretiosum. Researchers at the NY-CUAES, Mexico and Brazil, are evaluating the potential of two chrysopid genera for mass-rearing and release in the U.S.A. and Latin America. Attempts to cure adult C. comanche (Banks) and C. carnea (Stephens) of yeast using Hagens protocol, as well as several other fungicides and heat treatment, were unsuccessful, thus calling into question the earlier conclusions about the role of yeast in nutrient supplementation. In addition, Hagen had suggestedin 1970 that lacewings eclose without their yeast symbionts and must obtain them from the environment. Data now suggest a possible route of vertical yeast transmission. Objective 11. Conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Studies have been reported under many of the other objectives. Objective 12. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies. A simplified (presence-absence) sampling plan was developed for the twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae, on greenhouse impatiens to help growers and scouts conveniently estimate pest populations. Objective 13. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. No new progress to report. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts of Biological Control. Objective 14. Evaluate the environmental impacts of biological control agents. A research project monitoring non-target attack of the houndstongue root weevil at release sites in Alberta and British Columbia has been completed. This project also investigated the experimental host range of the weevil with regard to U.S. FWS listed rare Boraginacea species. The weevil was found to attack confamilials to various degrees at release sites. The houndstongue root weevil is also capable to complete development of at least three of the five Threatened and/or endangered listed Boraginaceae. As a consequence of this study it is unlikely that the weevil will or should be permitted for release in the U.S. Objective 15. Evaluate the economic impacts of target pests and their biological control. No new progress to report. WORK PLANNED FOR NEXT YEAR: In 2004, research addressed all fifteen objectives. Research will continue on all goals and objectives for a variety of target arthropod and weed pests throughout the Western United States and affiliated areas. Exploration for new biological control agents will continue, as will release, redistribution, and evaluation of establishment and efficacy. Improvements in conservation and augmentation methods and technologies will continue; these will provide better opportunities for incorporating biological control into integrated pest management programs. Increased emphasis will be placed on evaluating the economic and environmental impacts of biological control. Strong collaboration and communication among researchers in the regional project will continue to lead to significant advances in biological pest control technology. This will result in more environmentally and economically sound solutions to regional pest problems.

Due to space limitations, this is only a partial publication list. See the W-1185 website for the full 2004 publication list. Balciunas, J. 2004. Are mono-specific agents necessarily safe? The need for pre-release assessment of probable impact of candidate biocontrol agents, with some examples. pp. 252-257 in: Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on the Biological Control of Weeds. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia. Balciunas, J. 2004. Cape ivy, Delairea odorata (previously, Senecio mikanioides). pg. 441 in: E. Coombs, J. Clark, G. Piper, and A. Cofrancesco (eds.) Biological Control of Weeds in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon. Coombs, E.M. 2004. Factors that affect successful establishment of biological control agents. Pages 85-94 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Coombs, E.M., G.P. Markin, P.P. Pratt and B. Rice. 2004. Gorse. Pages 178-183 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Coombs, E.M., P.B. McEvoy and G.P. Markin. 2004. Tansy ragwort. Pages 335-344 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Coombs, E. M. and G. L. Piper. 2004. Bull thistle, Cirsium vulgare, pp. 345-346. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Coombs, E. M., G. L. Piper, and C. Roche. 2004. Meadow knapweed, Centaurea pratensis, pp. 200-201. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Coombs, E. M., J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. 2004. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. 467 p. Coulson, J.R., E.M. Coombs and B. Villegas. 2004. Documentation. Pages 47-49 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Cristofaro, M. M. Yu. Dolgovskaya, A. Konstantinov, F. Lecce, S.Ya. Reznik, L. Smith, C. Tronci, and M. G. Volkovitsh. 2004. Psylliodes chalcomerus Illiger (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticinae), a flea beetle candidate for biological control of yellow starthistle Centaurea solstitialis. In: Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds (eds Cullen, J.M., Briese, D.T., Kriticos, D.J., Lonsdale, W.M., Morin, L. and Scott, J.K.) pp. 75-80. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia. deLillo, E., R. Baldari, M. Christofaro, J. Kashefi, J. Littlefield, R. Sobhian, and C. Tronci. 2003. Eriophyid mites for the biological control of knapweed: morphological and biological observations. In: Cullen, J.M., D.T. Briese, D.J. Kriticos, W.M. Lonsdale, L. Morin and J.K. Scott (eds.). XI International Symposium on the Biological Control of Weeds. Canberra, Australia. May 2003. p. 88. Ehler, L. E. 2004. An evaluation of some natural enemies of Spodoptera exigua on sugarbeet in northern California. BioControl 49: 121-135. Godfrey, K. and M. McGuire. 2004. Overwintering of Aphelinus near paramali (Hymenoptera: Aphilinidae), an introduced parasite of the cotton aphid in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Florida Entomologist 87(1): 88-91. Goolsby, J., P. J. De Barro, A. A. Kirk, R. Sutherst, L. Canas, M. Ciomperlik, P. Ellsworth, J. Gould, D. Hartley, K. A. Hoelmer, S. J. Naranjo, M. Rose. W. Roltsch, R. Ruiz, C. Pickett, and D. Vacek. 2004. Post-release evaluation of the biological control of Bemisia tabaci biotype B in the USA and the development of predictive tools to guide introductions for other countries. Biological Control. In Press. Grafton-Cardwell, E., K. Godfrey, J. Pena, C. McCoy, and R. Luck. 2004. Diaprepes Root Weevil. University of California ANR Publication No. 8131. Grobbelaar, E., J. K. Balciunas, O. Neser, and S. Neser. 2003. South African insects for biological control of Delairea odorata. pp. 16-28 in: Proceedings, CalEPPC Symposiums, 2000, 2001, 2002. M. Kelly (ed.), Concord, CA. Guillén, M., J.M. Heraty and R.F. Luck. 2003. Seasonal variation and infestation incidence by Marmara gulosa Guillén and Davis (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) on grapefruit in the Coachella Valley of California (USA). Journal of Economic Entomology 96: 577-583. Guillén, M. and J. M. Heraty. Instar differences in Marmara gulosa Guillén and Davis (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae). Accepted by Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 21 mss pp. Accepted July 9, 2004. Gutierrez, A. P., M. J. Pitcairn, and N. Carruthers. 2004. Development of a supply-demand model to evaluate the biological control of yellow starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis, in California. In: J. M. Cullen (sr. ed.), Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, pp. 539-544. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia. Heraty, J. M. and M. E. Gates. 2003. Biodiversity of Chalcidoidea of the El Edén Ecological Reserve, Mexico. In: Proceedings of the 21st Symposium in Plant Biology, Lowland Maya Area: Three Millenia at the Human-Wildland Interface. (A. Gómez-Pompa, M. F. Allen, S. L. Fedick, and J. J. Jiménez-Osornio, eds.). Haworth Press. pp. 277-292. Heraty, J. M. 2003. Molecular Systematics, Chalcidoidea and Biological Control. In: Genetics and Evolution in Biological Control (L. Ehler, R. Sforza, and T. Mateille, eds.). CAB International. pp. 39-71. Hinz, H.L., and M. Schwarzlaender. 2004. Comparing invasive plants from their native and exotic range: what can we learn for biological control? Weed Technology (in press). Hoelmer, K. A. and C. H. Pickett. 2003. Geographic origin and taxonomic history of Delphastus spp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in commercial culture. Biocontrol Science and Technology 13: 529-535. Joley, D.B., D. M. Maddox, S.E. Schoenig, and B.E. Mackey. 2003. Parameters affecting germinability and seed bank dynamics in dimorphic achenes of Centaurea solstitialis in California. Canadian Journal of Botany 81: 993-1007. Littlefield, J. L. 2003. Spatial distribution and seasonal life history of Aceria malherbae Nuz. (Acrai: Eriophyidae) on Convolvulus arvensis L. in Montana, USA. In: Cullen, J.M., D.T. Briese, D.J. Kriticos, W.M. Lonsdale, L. Morin and J.K. Scott (eds.). XI International Symposium on the Biological Control of Weeds. Canberra, Australia. May 2003. p 607. Miller, R. H., O. Idechiil, R.G. Foottit and K.S. Pike. 2003. Uroleucon formosanum (Takahashi) (Homoptera: Aphididae) found on Youngia japonica (L.) DC on Guam and Rota in the Mariana Islands. Proc. Hawaiian Entomological Society, 36: 125-127. Müller-Schärer, H., Schaffner, U., Steinger, T. 2004. Evolution in invasive plants: implications for biological control. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19:417-422. Paine, T. D., K. M. Jetter, K. M. Klonsky, L. G. Bezark, and T. S. Bellows. 2003. Ash whitefly and biological control in the urban environment, pp. 203-213 In Exotic Pests and Diseases, Biology and Economics for Biosecurity, D. A. Sumner, Editor. Iowa State Press, A Blackwell Publishing Company. Pickett, C. H. and R. Wall. 2003. Biological control of ash whitefly Siphoninus phillyreae (Haliday) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidaea) by Encarsia inaron (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in northern California: 1990-2000. Pan-Pacific Entomologist, 79(2): 156-158. Piper, G.L., and E.M. Coombs. 2004. Thistles. Pages 345-378 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Piper, G.L., E.M. Coombs, G.P. Markin and D. Joley. 2004. Rush skeletonweed. Pages 293-303 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Piper, G. L. 2004. Biotic suppression of invasive weeds in Washington state: A half-century of progress, pp. 584-588. In J. M. Cullen, D. T. Briese, D. J. Kriticos, W. M. Lonsdale, L. Morin, and J. K. Scott (eds.), Proc. XI Int. Symp. Biol. Contr. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia. Piper, G. L. 2004. Integration of biological control with other methods, pp. 114-121. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Pitcairn, M., G.L. Piper, E.M. Coombs, D. Woods, and W. Bruckart. (2004). Yellow starthistle. Pages 421-435 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Pitcairn, M., G. L. Piper, and E. M. Coombs. 2004. Bangasternus orientalis, pp. 423-425. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Pitcairn, M., G. L. Piper, and E. M. Coombs. 2004. Chaetorellia australis, pp. 425-427. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Pitcairn, M., G. L. Piper, and E. M. Coombs. 2004. Eustenopus villosus, pp. 427-429. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Pitcairn, M., G. L. Piper, and E. M. Coombs. 2004. Larinus curtus, pp. 429-430. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Pratt, P.D., E.M. Coombs and B.A. Croft. 2003. Predation by phytoseiid mites on Tetranychus lintearius (Acari: Tetranychidae), an established weed biological control agent of gorse (Ulex europaeus). Biological Control 26:40-47. Puliafico, K.P., J.L. Littlefield, G. Markin, and U. Schaffner. 2003. The use of molecular taxonomy in the exploration for cold hardy stains of the tansy ragwort flea beetle Longitarsus jacobaeae (Waterhouse) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). In: Cullen, J.M., D.T. Briese, D.J. Kriticos, W.M. Lonsdale, L. Morin and J.K. Scott (eds.). XI International Symposium on the Biological Control of Weeds. Canberra, Australia. May 2003. p. 227. Roltsch, W.J. and D.E. Meyerdirk. 2004. Western grapeleaf skeletonizer, Harrisina brillians Barnes and McDunnough (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae). pp. 39-42 in J. L. Capinera (ed.), Encyclopedia of Entomology. Kluwer Law International 2400 pp. Roltsch, W.J. and B. Villegas. 2004. Pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). pp 113-115. In Ed. J. L. Capinera, 2004. Encyclopedia of Entomology. Kluwer Law International 2400 pp. Schooler, S.S., E.M. Coombs, P.B. McEvoy. 2003. Nontarget effects on crape myrtle by Galerucella pusilla and G. calmariensis (Chrysomelidae), used for biocontrol of purple loosestrife. Weed Science 51: 449-455. Schooler, S.S., P.B. McEvoy, and E.M. Coombs. 2004. The Ecology of Biological Control. Pages 15-26 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Smith, L., J. Balciunas, and M. Pitcairn. 2003. Biological control of yellow starthistle. pg. 41 in: Proceedings, CalEPPC Symposiums, 2000, 2001, 2002. M. Kelly (ed.), Concord, CA. Smith, L. 2004. Avoiding and exploiting trophic cascading: its role in the selection of weed biological control agents. In: Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds (eds Cullen, J.M., Briese, D.T., Kriticos, D.J., Lonsdale, W.M., Morin, L. and Scott, J.K.) pp. 175-179. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia. Sobhian, R., F. J. Ryan, A. Khamraev, M. J. Pitcairn, and D. E. Bell. 2003. DNA phenotyping to find a natural enemy in Uzbekistan for California biotypes of Salsola tragus L. Biological Control 28: 222-228. Story, J., G.L. Piper, E.M. Coombs. 2004. Knapweeds. Pages 196-232 in E.M. Coombs, J.K. Clark, . G.L. Piper, and A.F. Cofrancesco, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR. Story, J. M., G. L. Piper, and E. M. Coombs. 2004. Knapweeds, p. 196. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Turanli, F., Schaffner, U., 2004. Oviposition specificity of the specialist Tinthia myrmosaeformis under different levels of behavioural restrictions. Biological Control 30:274-280. Uygur, S. L. Smith, F. N. Uygur, M. Cristofaro, and J. Balciunas. 2004. Population densities of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) in Turkey. Weed Science 52(5): 746-753. Woods, D. M. (ed.) 2004. Biological Control Program Annual Summary, 2003. California Department of Food and Agriculture, Plant Health and Pest Prevention Services, Sacramento, California. 60pp.