Brief Summary of Minutes of Annual Meeting

ACCOMPLISHMENTS: (full individual reports can be found on the W-1185 website or can be obtained via the W-1185 Administrative Advisor, Dr. Donald Cooksey (Donald.cooksey@ucr.edu). Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Pests for which surveys were conducted over that last year include: soft scales occurring on citrus in central and southern California; Japanese knotweed, Fallopia japonica in Oregon; prerelease surveys for garlic mustard in Oregon; citrus leafminer in California; erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae, in American Samoa; the Seychelles scale on Ta'u Island; and olive fly in California. Chrysopids were surveyed in the Rocky Mountains and southeastern U.S. Redistribution of natural enemies aided control programs. Extensive redistribution of the foliage feeding/stem boring weevil Mecinus janthinus impacted populations of Dalmatian toadflax throughout eastern Washington. The seed head attacking insects Larinus minutus, L. obtusus, Urophora affinis and U. quadrifasciata were collected and redistributed to multiple sites in eastern Washington to populations of diffuse and spotted knapweeds. Larvae of Russian thistle - feeding moth, C. klimeschiella, were collected for movement into 3 Washington counties. Canada thistle remains the number one weed of concern in the state of Washington. Populations of the seed eating Larinus planus increased substantially on this invasive weed. A total of 9,620 adults were obtained and shipped to 8 counties to initiate or augment weevil populations in these locations. The yellow starthistle - seed eating beetle E. villosus is one of the most effective agents on the weed, the other being a seed eating fly C. succinea. Approximately 25,200 adult beetles were harvested and provided to landowners in five heavily infested counties. Several new pupal parasites of the introduced citrus leafminer and the native citrus peelminer have resulted in over 75% parasitism in southern California. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. Cooperative projects with Brazil, Mexico and Colombia, yielded valuable information on seasonal occurrence, life histories and behavior of diverse groups of lacewings. Emphasis was on the life history of a trash-carrying species (Chrysopodes lineafrons) that is widespread in Latin American cropping systems. The results indicate that C. lineafrons rivals other trash-carrying species as a potential candidate for continuous mass-rearing and use in biological control projects (especially in orchards where ants may be present). Parasitoids were found attacking olive fly with wild olive trees in the Yunnan Province in southeast China,. The braconid, Diachasmimorpha nr. longicaudata, emerged from some flies collected at this location. This was the first record for olive fruit fly in China. Foreign exploration for egg parasitoids of Avocado lace bug (Pseudacysta perseae) started in 2006 in the Caribbean islands, Veracruz, Mexico, and in the Yucatan Peninsula. The Aphelinus varipes group includes a complex of morphologically indistinct species that are reproductively isolated and which also have different host aphid preferences. These species can only be identified by differences at the molecular level, and by minute and variable morphological differences. This project is sampling populations of 3 described species from India. Erythrina species were surveyed in Kenya, South Africa, Benin, Togo, Ghana, and Nigeria to locate parasitoids of the Erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae. A large number of galling insects and parasitoids were discovered. Parasitoid species imported into the UC-Berkeley quarantine included: Psyttalia lounsburyi (South Africa and Kenya), Utetes africanus (South Africa), Psyttalia sp. nr humilis (South African), and Bracon celer (South Africa). Foreign exploration for parasitoids of red gum and spotted gum psyllid was made in Australia. Four parasitoid species of spotted gum psyllid were brought into quarantine for further evaluation. The hoary cress consortium continued funding foreign exploration of the following four candidate species at CABI Bioscience: Ceutorhynchus cardariae, C. merkli, and C. turbatus and Psylliodes wrasei. Foreign exploration for natural enemies of Dyers woad and perennial pepperweed also continued. The mass rearing for root-boring moth Bradyrrhoa gilveolella (against skeletonweed) has been expanded at the U. of Idaho and the Nez Perce Tribe Bio-Control Center. Restricted release permits for Idaho and Washington were obtained and first releases were made. Currently, insects are being reared on more than 1,000 plants of 40 western U.S. rush skeletonweed genotypes. Through cooperators in China, Kazakhstan, Israel, other Central Asian countries and the ARS EBCL, new natural enemies, including root borers, defoliating beetles and caterpillars, gall producing Diptera and seed feeding weevils are being investigated. New populations of the Tamarix leafbeetles Diorhabda elongata have been collected from Greece which may be better adapted for lower latitudes and warmer temperatures. Exploration for natural enemies is being conducted by collaborators in Kazakhstan, Tunisia, and central Turkey. Prospective new agents include a leaf-feeding jumping weevil (A. biimpressus), and two stem-feeding weevils (Baris przewalskyi and Salsolia morgei). Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. Systematics and comparative biology work continues on the Chrysopidae of the U.S and New World. Priority goes to genera with potential importance to biological control (e.g., Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes, Leucochrysa). A gall mite, tentatively identified as Aceria genistae, was discovered in Oregon and Washington as an adventive natural enemy of Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius. Acarologists will determine the species prior to host specificity tests. Work continues on the systematics of Ablerus (Aphelinidae), Cales (Calesinae) and Paracentrobia (Trichogrammatidae. Ittys have been revised for the Nearctic region with studies underway on the genus Paracentrobia. Ablerus are primary or secondary parasitoids of armored scale, and a morphology based revision is underway for the New World species. Primers have been developed to sequence over 600 base pairs of the Cytochrome Oxidase I gene for Erythrina gall wasps from Hawaii, South Africa, Kenya, American Samoa and Tanzania. The populations from HI and American Samoa are identical and monomorphic so far for this gene region, indicating they are the same species and likely from the same point of origin. Further work is necessary to pinpoint origin of this species in Africa. Statewide surveys to determine status of invasive aphids was conducted throughout the Hawaiian Islands. At least 9 new aphid species not previously known to occur in the state were discovered: Ericaphis fimbriata, Hyadaphis coriandri, Hyperomyzus carduellinus, Metopolophium dirhodum, Myzus hemerocallis, Sitobion fragariae, Sitobion phyllanthi, Toxoptera odinae, and Aphis coreopsidis. Molecular analysis to separate populations of vine mealybug from many of the worlds Mediterranean regions has begun, in order to determine where vine mealybug in California originated. Work is separating the Psyllaephagus species collected on spotted gum psyllid, and they are suspected to be Psyllaephagus parvus, P. hirtus, P. fautus (a hyperparasitoid), P. clarus (facultatively hyperparasitic) and four undescribed species of Psyllaephagus. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. Considerable effort went into testing natural enemies for host specificity prior to applying for environmental release. Host specificity studies on several species of Ceutorhynchus against garlic mustard, are nearing completion. Screening tests of potential biocontrol agents for use against invasive hawkweed species in North America are currently being conducted at CABI Bioscience, Switzerland, and at the Montana State University. Host specificity testing of the gall wasp Aulacidea subterminalis was completed at MSU. Aulacidea subterminalis has been tested on 36 plant species of which 29 are species native to North America. Galls were only induced on 4 exotic species. A proposed host specificity test plant list for potential biological control agents for hoarycress, perennial pepperweed and dyers woad has been drafted and submitted to TAG for review. Quarantine host range testing with two parasitoids of the Erythrina gall wasp (an unidentified Eulophid from Kenya; and an unidentified Eurytomid from Tanzania) so far indicate no host acceptance of a non-target gall fly on pamakani, nor the lantana gall fly on lantana in Hawaii. Six of the known ecotypes of Diorhabda elongata (biocontrol agents for Tamarix spp) are being maintained in quarantine. Host range testing and hybridization experiments between the different populations have been continued in 2006. The Albany, CA quarantine has completed host specificity testing for P. regalis a gall forming fly, and Digitivalva delairea, a leaf mining and stem boring moth, both against cape ivy (Delairea odorata); for Gymnancyla canella against Salsola tragus; for the flea beetle Psylliodes nr. sp. chalcomera from Russia; and a petition requesting permission to release was submitted to USDA-APHIS for the root crown weevil C. basicorne. Diorhabda elongata, from Xinjiang Province, PR of China was approved for release against saltcedar. Colonies from Crete, Greece, and Turpan, China, which should be phenologically better adapted, are being evaluated. The biology of a gall midge (Psectrosema spp.) and a seed weevil (Corimalia spp.) is being studied in quarantine. Extensive no-choice and multiple-choice tests occurred with the gall-forming weevil C. cardariae, against yellow starthistle, confirming its narrow host range and potential. Tests conducted with the stem-miner C. merkli were again unsatisfactory, and work will be postponed. Screening methods for the seed feeder C. turbatus were refined and results so far indicate a very restricted host range of this species. Molecular work with Rhinusa hispida has confirmed the complex relationship of most toadflax insects with their host plants in Europe and the need to carry out complete host range tests with R. hispida from L. vulgaris and L. genistifolia. Extensive no-choice and multiple-choice tests in 2006 with the gall-forming weevil Rhinusa hispida from L. vulgaris, confirmed its narrow host range and potential as a biological control agent. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Many releases and redistributions were carried out pests this year. For a complete list see the W-1185 website. Approximately 3,000 Pseudacteon tricuspis adults were released near red imported fire ant nests at two locations in Riverside Co., CA. The braconid wasp, Peristenus stygicus, has overwintered for the first time in California on the central coast using Lygus hesperus infesting strawberries as a host. They have been recovered from the same region for two consecutive years post-release from wild vegetation bordering conventional strawberries. Additional releases of the leaf beetle Diorhabda elongata from the Lovelock, NV site were made at several new sites in conjunction with USDA-APHIS. Heavy ant predation is compounding establishment and spread in Oregon. Multiple releases of Mecinus janthinus were made at strategic locations in OR against Linaria dalmatica in conjunction with USDA-APHIS. Several older sites are showing remarkable reductions of target weed density. The seed head weevil Larinus obtusus has been widely distributed in OR against Centaurea pratense. Studies in conjunction with OSU have shown significant impacts on seed reduction at several sites. The field bindweed gall mite Aceria malherbae was discovered established in OR. Local redistribution was made to build up a local nursery site for redistribution projects in 2007. Releases of the rust disease, Puccinia jaceae var. solstitialis, continued throughout California. The rust was released at 99 locations in 38 counties using spores propagated in the greenhouse in Sacramento during 2005. Each release occurred in a plot 1 meter by 1 meter using a suspension of spores and water. Follow-up surveys approximately one month following treatment showed evidence of infection at almost all the sites. Releases of natural enemies were made at two purple loosestrife infestations in CA. Galerucella leaf beetles were released near in Butte County and approximately 3,000 Galerucella leaf beetles were released near Sanger. Releases of the water hyacinth weevil, Neochetina bruchi were made at Freedom Reservoir in Santa Cruz County. Approximately 400 water hyacinth weevils were collected from Whiskey San Joaquin County and transported to Watsonville for released at Freedom Reservoir which was completely covered water hyacinth. Detailed studies in Arizona have documented the establishment of the aphelinids Encarsia sophia and Eretmocerus nr. emiratus against Bemisia tabaci and impact is being monitored through continued life table studies. Phenology and life history of tansy ragwort flea beetle, Longitarsus jacobaeae for use in Montana were studied and a Swiss population was released by MSU and the US Forest Service. Three release techniques utilizing eggs, newly hatched larvae and adults were used to establish the beetle. Since 2002, 85 individual releases were made in Flathead and Lincoln Counties. Although beetle populations have been low, populations at two sites significantly increased this past year. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the potential efficacy of natural enemies against invasive and indigenous pest species. Several toadflax species, subspecies, or hybrids occur in areas of the western United States. In northeastern WA, two forms of Dalmatian toadflax are evident. Regardless of the plants taxonomic status, the weevil Mecinus janthinus attacks both forms but its impacts on both have not been compared. A field and outdoor plot study was initiated to quantify impacts the weevil may have on both forms. Cardinium hertigii, a newly described symbiont, causes multiple effects on reproduction in Encarsia parasitoids of armored scale and whiteflies. In Bemisia tabaci, Cardinium also causes cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), in which the symbiont in infected males effectively sabotages the reproduction of uninfected females. Focus has been on Encarsia inaron, the classical biological control agent for ash whitefly, now established in California, Arizona and the Southeastern United States. The biological control potential of 7 Diorhabda elongata ecotypes is being tested against saltcedar. The Fukang ecotype is being released and defoliating large acreages of saltcedar at research sites in the northern half of the western US. Studies will determine if the ecotypes will exhibit assortive mating (actively searching for compatible ecotypes) in large cage trials in an attempt to more accurately simulate field conditions. At UC-Berkeley, studies of C. peregrinus biology are being conducted to determine its potential effect on mealybug densities. Studies of fruit fly parasitoid biology, a red gum psyllid parasitoid (Psyllaephagus bliteus), and biology of parasitoids reared from obliquebanded leafroller and navel orangeworm continue. Lab. and field studies to characterize and model post-diapause development of Chaetorellia succinea have been conducted by USDA-ARS in CA. In cooperation with CDFA, they established field sites in 3 CA counties growing two varieties of Centaurea americana. This species, under both choice and no-choice conditions, proved susceptible to attack by C. succinea in laboratory tests. Barley, wheat, and oats in Utah were sampled to determine rates of parasitism of the cereal leaf beetle by the parasitoid Tetrastichus julius. Intensity of predation by the introduced lady beetle C. septempunctata and native lady beetles on cereal leaf beetle eggs and larvae in these crops was evaluated through field experiment. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Many approaches are being utilized to determine the role of natural enemies within the host community. Current studies include: quantifying natural enemy populations via life tables and other sources of mortality impacting pest populations; examining feeding behavior of natural enemies among different crop varieties; using immunological techniques to screen predators for the presence of pest species in their guts; determining actual field parasitization rates; and evaluating various pest management tactics that permit the preservation of the natural enemy complexes associated with established pest complexes. Life table studies of B. tabaci on six host plants demonstrated that predation and dislodgement were consistently the largest sources of mortality and were generally key factors depending on host plant and season and that spring cantaloupe production acts as a biological release leading to pest outbreak on summer crops. Studies continue on applying immunological techniques to field studies of dispersal. Three protein-specific ELISAs have been optimized and researchers are currently using the three proteins (milk, chicken egg whites, and soy milk) to mark insects directly in the field using a standard broadcast spray rig. Predators of GWSS have been identified by analyzing their gut contents for the presence of GWSS remains using these assays. Citrus leafminer, P. citrella, were monitored at two sites in California. Similar results were found as in other years: leafminer populations peak in the fall and early winter, and then decline in the spring, surprisingly when the preferred stage of leaf flush reaches a maximum. Three primary parasites have been identified, C. utahenis, Cirrospilus coachellae, and a new species of Cirrospilus. Parasitoid activity coincides with declining leafminer populations and may cause the low spring and summer populations. Laboratory studies were completed to determine and compare reproductive behavior of indigenous and introduced lady beetles when provided with diets of larval cereal leaf beetles and aphids in varying quantities. Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Pesticides, transgenic crops, ant activity, facultative symbionts and intraguild predation are just a few of the factors being evaluated with respect to disruption of biological control. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of new insecticides for whitefly control. Results suggest that spiromesifen has a dose-dependent effect against generalist predators and that low rates of this compound may be useful in integrated control programs for Bemisia tabaci. Follow-up laboratory studies are being conducted with select representative generalist predators to determine the effect of direct and indirect exposure to Bt cotton toxins using plants and sublethally-intoxicated prey. Preliminary results suggest that predator biology may be affected indirectly through prey quality but not directly or indirectly through Bt toxins. Miller conducted a survey of invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Rota in the Mariana Islands. This activity was part of a project surveying Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and other Mariana Islands. Analysis of morphometric data continued on a Aphis gossypii project. Morphometric and DNA data was also generated for the banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa, and suggested that this aphid may consist of two separate species, with the species commonly found on banana being the principle vector of banana bunch top virus. Facultative symbionts in pea aphids confer resistance to parasitism by Aphidius ervi (Target pest A. pisum). Symbiont-conferred resistance could be part of the explanation for variable performance of A. ervi in the field. The direct contact toxicity of GF-120 to three major parasitoids of tephritids in Hawaii: Fopius arisanus, D. tryoni, and Pysttalia fletcheri, as well as one aphid parasitoid, Aphidius transcaspicus, was tested. All four parasitoid species were susceptible to GF-120. Assassin bugs in the genus Zelus were observed on saltcedar test plots near Artesia, New Mexico where D. elongata had been released. Predation of adult beetles by the assassin bug, Z. renardii, and Z. tetracanthus was commonly observed in the field. A study will determine the influence of these bugs on saltcedar leaf beetles. Assassin bugs will consume adult and larval leaf beetles at rates high enough to influence the establishment of these species. UC-Berkeley is screening insecticides for their impact on mealybug natural enemies. In vineyards, they have studied sugar bait ant controls as a method to safely reduce ant populations in order to increase biological controls. They have also continued studies of spiders to determine their role in biocontrol programs, including the potential disruptive impact of an invasive spider (C. mildei) on spider guild structure and pest leafhoppers densities. Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. Studies were initiated to examine movement of Lygus bugs and associated natural enemies and their population dynamics from lesquerella (a new desert oil-seed crop) to adjacent cotton and guayule (a new desert latex-source crop). Preliminary results indicated that Lygus and several species of predators readily moved from senescing lesquerella into cotton but not guayule. While biological control promises long-term suppression of Seychelles scale, more short-term measures are needed to protect breadfruit trees until introductions can be made. Four products deemed relatively safe for natural enemies were evaluated against Seychelles scale in a field trial on Ta'u Island. Unfortunately none provided satisfactory control, so any short-term control efforts will have to rely on repeated applications of broad-spectrum insecticides. UC-Riverside and UC-Berkeley are collaborating to develop and test mealybug pheromones for mating disruption, as a method to work in conjunction with parasitoid releases. In CA pistachios, studies continue on the impact of orchard mummies (old nuts) on the populations of navel orangeworm. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. Surveys determined the distribution of Trichogramma spp. present in corn fields on Oahu and Kauai. On Oahu, T. achaeae was found to inflict approx. 60% parasitism on H. zea without augmentation. On Kauai, T. achaeae and T. papillionis were both present, with the latter apparently dominant in terms of proportion of H. zea eggs parasitized. Researchers at the NY-CUAES (collaborating with Mexico and Brazil) continue to evaluate two chrysopid genera for mass-rearing and release in the U.S.A. and Latin America. Emphasis in Mexico is on Ceraeochrsya species against homopteran pests of citrus; in Brazil it focuses on Chrysopodes species against homopteran pests of fruit and vegetable crops. In both cases, the larvae carry debris on their dorsa. In California, detailed behavioral evaluation of Metaphycus species parasitizing several soft scale species in the lab and field has concluded. They are facultatively gregarious and allocate offspring sex non-randomly, i.e., they lay one male and one to several females, the clutch size depending on parasitoid species and the scale size attacked. This trait enables the maximum production of females for field release. Objective 11. Conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Studies have been reported under many of the other objectives. Two examples of release studies involve pistachio and Russian knapweed natural enemies. In pistachios, the augmentative release of Bracon nr. sp. cushmani (Hym.: Braconidae) for the control of obliquebanded learoller, did not provide improved control. Open-field impact studies carried out from 2003 - 2005 with the two biological control candidates of Russian knapweed, Aulacidea acroptilonica and Jaapiella ivannikovi, indicate that both species significantly reduce seed output (80-95%) and above-ground biomass (c. 25%) of A. repens. Established clones have a very high survival rate both in the native and the invaded range, so the expected impact of the biological control candidates is primarily the prevention of further spread and a reduction in competitive ability of established Russian knapweed patches. Objective 12. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies. An effective mass-rearing procedure for T. achaeae and T. papillionis was developed and tested using irradiated Ephestia euhniella eggs as factitious hosts for the wasps. Cold storage of T. achaeae was possible for up to 14 days (in the pre-pupal stage). Last year, Idaho researchers received the cold-adapted Swiss strain of the ragwort flea beetle L. jacobaea from Montana for release at higher elevation infestations of tansy ragwort. Since then, they mass reared and released the flea beetle and monitored its establishment at field sites. Mass-rearing for root-boring moth B. gilveolella (against Chondrilla juncea) has been expanded at the University of Idaho and the Nez Perce Tribe Bio-Control Center in Lapwai, ID. Restricted release permits for Idaho and Washington were obtained in 2006 and first releases were made. Six of the known ecotypes of Diorhabda elongata are being maintained in the New Mexico State Quarantine. Populations from the following locations are in culture: Crete, Greece; Possidi, Greece; Sfax, Tunisia; Turpan, China; Fukang, China, and Karshi, Uzebekistan. Objective 13. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. Preliminary work on the potential of Trichogramma spp. present in Hawai'i as augmentative biocontrol agents for Helicoverpa zea in seed corn is being conducted. Releases of T. achaeae on Oahu at densities of 40,000 per acre provided close to 100% parasitism of H. zea eggs by 12 days after release. On Kauai, releases of T. papillionis (15,000 females per release) resulted in 90-95% parasitism of H. zea eggs. Innundative strategies continue to be used successfully against small patches of leafy spurge. Aphthona lacertosa and A. nigriscutis were spread evenly over patches of leafy spurge at densities of 160 beetles/m2. As in previous years, over 95% control of above-ground biomass was seen in the year after release especially on upland sites. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts of Biological Control. Objective 14. Evaluate the environmental impacts of biological control agents. The population impacts of accidentally and purposefully introduced parasitoid wasps on a Hawaiian endemic moth, Udea stellatifolia, are being measured. Accidentally introduced species are responsible for the bulk of parasitism measured in the field, although one purposefully introduced species occurs in relatively pristine areas. The data are still being analyzed to determine which species act as key mortality factors in the population dynamics of the moth. A research project monitoring non-target attack of the houndstongue root weevil at six release sites in Alberta and British Columbia has been completed. A survey of native and exotic Cardueae plants in California and Oregon for three years looked for nontarget attacks by C. succinea, an accidentally introduced biocontrol agent of yellow starthistle. The fly infested safflower in two out of 47 fields studied, attacking 1% to 8% of the seedheads. The fly did not attack 24 species of Cardueae plants, but did attack C. melitensis and C. sulphurea, both closely related to yellow starthistle. Field monitoring of vegetation at all proposed release sites is completed, and will provide a baseline for assessing recovery of riparian ecosystems following anticipated reduction of Tamarix spp. owing to biological control. At one site with unusual water chemistry germination and survival of native woody species (Populus fremontii, Salix laevigata, S. exigua, Baccharis salicifolia) was tested under different watering and substrate conditions to assess the potential for natural recovery following target reduction. Results suggest that manual restoration may be necessary to promote native riparian species at this site. Interest in the Code of Best Practices (for biocontrol of weeds) appears to be increasing. A survey of weed management specialists in Oregon confirmed that the majority favor adopting the guidelines of the Code. Long-term censusing of the assemblage of lady beetle species exploiting alfalfa fields of Utah was continued to evaluate effects of the introduction and establishment of the exotic lady beetle, C. septempunctata, on native coccinellids. Objective 15. Evaluate the economic impacts of target pests and their biological control. Little new progress to report. Some data included in the full reports. See the website. WORK PLANNED FOR NEXT YEAR: In 2007, research will continue on all goals and objectives for a variety of target arthropod and weed pests throughout the Western United States and affiliated areas. Exploration for new biological control agents will continue, as will release, redistribution, and evaluation of establishment and efficacy. Improvements in conservation and augmentation methods and technologies will continue; these will provide better opportunities for incorporating biological control into integrated pest management programs. Increased emphasis will be placed on evaluating the economic and environmental impacts of biological control. Strong collaboration and communication among researchers in the regional project will continue to lead to significant advances in biological pest control technology. This will result in more environmentally and economically sound solutions to regional pest problems.