Brief Summary of Minutes of Annual Meeting

Short-term Outcomes: W-2188 participants mentored >20 MS students, PhD students, and Post-doctoral researchers this year. Participants in Arizona developed a new fully-automated (no operator bias) algorithm for multiphase segmentation of X-ray computed tomography data of porous media with potential for real-time segmentation and applicability in biomedical research. Participants in California developed a mathematical model for pathogen transport and retention that accounts for observed trends in pathogen and soil size, velocity, chemical interactions, and concentration. Participants in Idaho continued work on characterizing preferential flow pathways in forested hill slopes. Tree stumps left behind after logging are a common feature of managed forests. Subsequent forest fires often result in the complete combustion of decayed stumps and roots, leaving behind empty soil pipes. These soil pipes potentially provide rapid subsurface lateral flow pathways for water that play a critical role in hill slope hydrology and stability. Electrical resistivity (ERT) was used as a non-invasive technique to produce a three dimensional representation of the soil subsurface. Pre-burn ERT images indicated a portion of an existing soil pipe. A post burn survey of soil pipe openings over the 2 hectares documented 198 surface soil pipe openings. Most soil pipe openings exhibited evidence of forming from, or being enhanced by, the combustion of decaying tree roots. Comparing pre- and post-burn ERT images demonstrated the degree of soil pipe formation due to the prescribed burn. A better understanding of soil pipe distribution is crucial for water management in forested ecosystems. Participants in Iowa developed and tested an improved formulation of scale-dependent diffusion coefficients. Participants in Kentucky discovered additive state-space models are a promising approach to separate large-scale soil spatial variation from small-scale variation imposed by rainfall treatment in field-scale solute transport experiments. With increasing rainfall intensity, the solute leaching increases for the same amount of rainfall. The larger the time between solute application and subsequent rainfall, the smaller the probability of deep leaching and ground water contamination. Additive state-space models through their ability to separate large- from small-scale variation support appropriate nitrogen management while the assumption of one unique Yield-N-response function becomes unnecessary. In farmers fields, with current technology, nitrogen application rate in wheat can be managed at a scale of 4 by 5 m2 or larger based on crop sensors and derived vegetative indices, e.g., NDVI. It is not reasonable yet to manage at a smaller scale. Participants in Minnesota analyzed stream flow data with factor analysis and identified artificial drainage and land cover change as possible causes of increased stream flow in Minnesota. This result will be tested further using alternate methods of analysis. Channel widening of the Minnesota River is evidence for one of the sources of increased sediment in the river. Evaluation of the deposition of this sediment as well sediment derived from other sources such as fields, bluffs and ravines onto point bars and onto flood plain areas is ongoing to provide for estimates of the sediment budget. Participants in Nevada derived guidelines of effective soil hydraulic parameters to predict average infiltration and subsequent moisture redistribution over a large scale heterogeneous field. They also developed an approach to investigate how the harmonic mean function of hydraulic conductivities of individual soil layers would perform in predicting evaporation and infiltration fluxes in a layered heterogeneous profile. They also showed that soil-root interfaces can be imaged using CMT and changes in macro-pore volume of the rhizosphere can be quantified employing numerical image analysis and Finite Element simulations. A new method to estimate Green-Ampt infiltration parameters was developed based on soil moisture measurements and cumulative infiltration curves obtained during rainfall simulator tests. This parameter optimization procedure optimized results for the hydraulic conductivity and potential at the wetting front. The approach worked well for ideal, measured infiltration curves. Laboratory studies in North Dakota indicate that estradiol associates with colloids derived from manures, which implies that they can be transport on and through soils. Additionally, we demonstrated that estradiol can be dislodged from colloids. The implication of this result is if estradiol is transport by a colloid to end-point source of water, it can dissociate from the colloid, becoming available to negatively impact biological organisms. The laboratory experiments with the conjugate derived estradiol indicated that sulfate conjugates can transform into the potent estradiol molecule in soil solutions. The implication of these results from the conjugate studies is that conjugates, which are prevalent in animal manures, can contribute potent estradiol into the environment. A glucuronide conjugate of estradiol was detected in a field well water sample several meters below the land surface, which supports our conclusions that conjugates can enhance the mobility of estradiol through the soil. Composting had little effect on the total estrogenic activities in swine manures compared to non-composted manures. It was found that the most potent estrogen, estradiol, had already converted to estrone at the start of the experiment. These composting results indicate that estrogenic activities, and associate toxicities, are at a reduced level before composting is commenced. Soils amended with CGR significantly increased the pH of the soil, increased the soil EC, and had no effect on the soil trace metal concentrations. These results indicate that CGR could be used as a soil liming agent to increase the soil pH, thus increasing the nutrient availability in the soil. The plant shoot biomass was affected by the CGR. In Oklahoma key outcomes of this project were advances in scientific knowledge on methods to monitor soil water content and plant available water. This new knowledge was generated by the project team and shared with an international audience of researchers through a presentation at the ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting in San Antonio, TX. A second outcome was an enhancement of the conditions for further research. The project results laid the foundation for two new research grants this year; one from the Oklahoma Water Resources Research Institute, and one from the Joint Fire Science Program. Both of these grants focus on soil water dynamics. Participants in Texas improved understanding and predictability of soil water and chemical transport processes at different scales. Users of soil water sensors were educated on their usefulness for different objectives through published papers and chapters, and presentations at conferences. Participants in Washington continued work on identifying fundamental mechanisms controlling colloid transport in unsaturated porous media. Direct applications of this work is done at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation, where the work helps to identify hazards of groundwater contamination and guides clean-up strategies and long-term remediation and management of the site. The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model was further developed and tested. In collaboration with the USDA NSERL, the online WEPP GIS interface, a user friendly interface to assist in watershed hydrologic and erosion assessment, was developed. The model performance was tested by applying it to two selected forest watersheds in the Great Lakes Basin. A field study was also conducted to evaluate the impacts of residue management on snow distribution and soil water storage. In Wyoming automated monitoring of soil-state variables such as water content, temperature, and CO2 concentration continued as part of several multi-investigator research projects in irrigated fields, rangeland soils, and forest ecosystems. Development of a numerical soil water flow, heat transport, and CO2 transport computer code continued, with improvements being made in the calculation of leaf stomatal conductance, snow albedo, and output visualization. Outputs: W-2188 participants authored 97 peer-reviewed papers, 12 book chapters, 100 abstracts and proceedings papers, 4 technical reports, and 2 patent applications in 2011. Participants in California engaged in collaborative research with engineers in Brazil, atmospheric scientists in Israel, and agronomists in Pakistan. HYDRUS models have been updated with several new capabilities and options that have been developed for various research projects. These included: a) irrigation and fertigation scheduling (triggered irrigation), b) overland flow module, c) transport of stable water isotopes. Participants in Idaho collaborated with Utah State University (Scott Jones) and the University of Arizona (Markus Tuller) on space soil physics and mine tailing re-cultivation. In addition, collaboration was been established with NMT (White) and UNR (Saito) on the development of novel approaches to identify triggers of drastic environmental change. Participants in Iowa measured breakthrough curves in structured and unstructured soils to investigate the effect the presence of suspended colloidal material has on estradiol (E2) transport in soil. Initial results indicate that colloids can be rapidly transported and carry E2 with them when preferential flow channels are present. Swine manure derived colloids appear to be less mobile than soil derived colloids (likely due to size exclusion enhancing the larger soil colloids movement), but both have been eluted with E2 attached to them. E2 and its daughter product estrone were both eluted in the solution phase (estrone peaking later than E2) and both lagged behind a rapid arrival of bromide. Biochar amendments enhanced water retention in sandy loam and silt loam soils. The effect of biochar on water retention was pronounced in coarse-textured soils. Bulk density of sandy loam and silt loam soils decreased from 1.41 g/cm3 to 1.15 g/cm3 and 1.23 g/cm3 to 0.95 g/cm3, respectively, as the rates of biochar increased from 0 to 6 %. Soil carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes in the soil profile were determined with a gradient method by measuring CO2 concentration and estimating gas diffusion coefficient with depth and time. CO2 sensor measurement provided realistic CO2 distribution and movement in the soil profile. CO2 concentration increased with the increase of soil depths and CO2 concentration increased immediately after rainfall events at all the soil depths. Soil carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes obtained from gradient method showed the values of CO2 fluxes and the diurnal variation decreased with the increase of soil depths and the CO2 flux was stable below 100 mm soil depth. The values of soil surface CO2 efflux from the gradient method were similar to the closed-chamber values. Eddy covariance CO2 flux agreed well with the other methods during night periods but not during day periods when wind speed and solar radiation were relatively large. Results from this study indicated that soil CO2 fluxes can be estimated from soil CO2 sensors. Although evapotranspiration (ET) is a main component of the hydrological cycle, accurate partitioning of ET into evaporation (E) and transpiration (T) is challenging. Evaporation was measured using heat pulse sensors, transpiration T using stem flow gauges, and ET using an eddy covariance system in a corn field. Potential evapotranspiration, ET0, was also calculated with the Priestley-Taylor equation for a 12 day measurement period. Potential ET0 was larger than the individually measured E+T and eddy covariance ET. Eddy covariance ET was consistently lower than the individually measured E+T and the potential ET0 during the measurement period. E, T, E+T and eddy covariance ET accounted for 8%, 77%, 85% and 61% of potential ET0, respectively, during the 12-day period. Participants in Minnesota have conducted work to evaluate the causes of the increased stream flow which has been linked to increased sediment loads in the Minnesota River using a variety methods, including hydrograph analysis, isotope flow separation methods, and water balance modeling. Of interest to stakeholder groups is the prioritization of the sites that have the greatest potential benefits for sediment reduction. Results are being used interactively with the stakeholder groups to develop the prioritizations. The assessment of near-channel source erosion has been conducted without examining the detailed processes involved in the erosion. More work needs to be done on this to be able to promote better understanding of how the erosion occurs and to design mitigation schemes. It is assumed that the erosion of the near-channel sources of sediment is not only the result of boundary shear, but also the result of subsurface flow processes (sapping, piping, etc.). Work has been initiated to develop models of these processes and to work collaboratively with researchers (e.g., USDA Sedimentation Lab, Oxford, MS) who are developing laboratory and field data for model testing. Soil freezing is an important process over large parts of Earth. The process affects surface hydrology (due to effects on rainfall-runoff partitioning), land surface-atmosphere energy balances, soil erosion, soil genesis, solute transport, and human infrastructure. Models of soil freezing processes are needed to be able to quantify these effects, and while many models do exist, most have significant limitations when it comes to prediction of the highly nonlinear behavior of soil freezing. Models are being developed for soil freezing that eliminates some of the limitations of previous models. In North Dakota laboratory experiments were conducted to identify whether soil and/or manure derived colloids and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) can facilitate the transport and increase the persistence of estradiol. Colloids and DOC were separated from field soils and swine manure and were mixed in solutions with radiolabelled (14C) estradiol. The partitioning of the estradiol to the colloids and DOC were observed. Additionally, soil batch laboratory experiments were conducted using radiolabelled estradiol conjugates of sulfate to identify the partitioning of the sulfate conjugate and its metabolites to soils. The sulfate conjugates and its metabolites were modeled. Compost was investigated as a means to ameliorate the estrogenic levels in swine manures. The chemical composition and characteristics of concrete grinding residues (CGR), a waste product road construction, were determined along with its effect on the mechanical properties of soil, and whether it has an effect plant growth. In Oklahoma the soil water retention characteristics necessary to facilitate monitoring of plant available water via the Oklahoma Mesonet were measured. The laboratory measurements of these key soil properties were completed for every Mesonet site. The accuracy of this new plant available water monitoring capability was also validated by direct measurement with soil sampling. In Texas participants conducted several field campaigns to better understand the underlying processes controlling the spatio-temporal variations of soil moisture using multiple ground, air, and space-borne sensors. Spatio-temporal variabilitys, time stability, as well as their geophysical controls at different measurement support scales (point-scale, airborne, to space borne remote sensor footprints) were studied in different hydro-climatic regions. Results showed that soil properties (i.e., percentage silt, percentage sand, and soil texture), and topography (elevation and slope) are significant physical controls jointly affecting the spatio-temporal evolution and time stability of soil moisture at both point- and footprint-scale. In addition, new up scaling methods were developed for soil hydraulic properties at the hill slope scale based on topographic features. Controlled soil column experiments, mimicking various environmental boundary conditions and geological heterogeneities were used to investigate water flow and contaminant transport in macroporous, fractured, layered, and lensed soil columns. Results were analyzed using forward and inverse modeling including Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm to define complex processes and parameter uncertainties. In Utah work at the TW Daniel Experimental Forest site continued with data analysis to extract evaporation and transpiration estimates for vegetation species being studied there. The site was updated with two new instruments during late summer of 2011 to monitor soil moisture and snow water equivalent. Ongoing work with the Penta-needle Heat Pulse Probe (PHPP) has become a very productive effort with multiple applications being developed in the past year. The probe has been described regarding its potential to estimate subsurface soil evaporation as well as providing soil heat flux estimates. In addition, the PHPP can be used to monitor soil water flux, providing both magnitude and direction between 1 and 10,000 cm/d. A number of presentations were delivered at national meetings describing these applications. Electromagnetic sensor comparison work was conducted at the University of Arizona with Carlos Vaz and Markus Tuller, from which two presentations at meetings were delivered based on that work. Participation at the SOIL FUTURE workshop in Denmark resulted in acceptance of a manuscript in VZJ. Collaboration with Colleagues in Israel resulted in funding of a BARD Proposal aimed at developing measurement capabilities to monitor soil water and nutrient movement. Participants in Washington identified a unique aspect of colloid mobilization in unsaturated porous media, namely the different effects of advancing and receding air-water interfaces on colloid scouring from solid-water interfaces. An experimental system to study colloid transport in porous media in a geocentrifuge was developed. A predictive system to simulate seed-zone water contents in the dryland wheat-cropping system of Washington State was developed. A new user interface for the WEPP model was developed and tested. This new interface uses the OpenLayers and MapServer GIS software with base image data from Google. Custom programs in C++ assist in both preparation of WEPP inputs and interpretation of WEPP outputs. A user needs only a web browser to set up and perform WEPP simulations, with geospatial (DEM, soil, land use) and climatic data all auto-retrieved and processed. Participants in Wyoming published a study in SSSAJ on the determination of depth-wise water retention in seasonally frozen field soils using Hydra impedance sensors. Unfrozen soil water content was derived from the real permittivity using a dielectric mixing model while soil water pressure head was calculated from freezing soil temperatures using the Clapeyron equation. Comparison of the Hydra water retention data with laboratory retention data showed mixed results. The best results were obtained for the shallowest sensors because of the more significant and more prolonged soil freezing at these depths, resulting in relatively wide ranges for the calculated soil water pressure heads. Fitted curves for the Hydra sensor water retention data yielded unreliable parameters because of insufficient information on the wet end of the water retention curves. Two papers on CO2 production and transport in a rangeland soil were submitted to SSSAJ and VZJ, respectively. The SSSAJ paper used the gradient method to calculate depth-wise CO2 flux and production. Temperature-normalized CO2 production was found to be a function of soil water content, with maximum production being observed at 0.165- 0.225 m3 m-3. The VZJ paper used a numerical model to calculate the water, heat, and CO2 fluxes in the soil-plant-atmosphere system. Calculated ecosystem respiration was 176-178 g C m-2 yr-1 over two years. The relatively low respiration values were expected, given the relatively high elevation of the study site (2200 m above sea level), resulting in a short growing season. Activities: Arizona: A major project was begun on the development of a physically-based predictive model for soil evaporation that considers the thermal footprint measured with a highly sensitive thermal camera, water fluxes measured with an array of Penta Needle Heat Pulse Probes (PNHPP), and physical soil properties such as thermal and hydraulic conductivities and texture. Another major project was initiated aimed at the development of economically feasible gradient-based and surface chamber techniques for measurement of greenhouse and regulated gas emissions from animal feeding operations. To develop strategies for optimizing hydrological conditions in mine tailings in the arid Southwest, electromagnetic induction (EMI) surface surveys were applied to characterize spatial heterogeneity of physical and mineralogical tailings properties. California: Progress was made in modeling the effects of soil moisture status on pesticide volatilization. Extensive salt accumulation and leaching data collected over four years were analyzed and compared with model predictions. Researchers at Riverside, California used techniques from theoretical physics to develop a new model explaining permeability in terms of pore-structure and demonstrated that the model was more accurate than previous models. Research was initiated to examine pathogen transport in runoff water. In particular, we have designed and built an overland flow chamber (3 m long, 15 cm high and 18 cm wide) to study pathogen transport with runoff water. Preliminary conservative tracer (bromide) and E. coli O157:H7 transport studies were conducted in this chamber to develop and refine experimental protocols and to examine the influence of solution chemistry on the transport and release of E. coli O157:H7 in runoff water. A model to simulate water flow and pathogen transport in overland flow and in variably saturated soils under a wide range of conditions was developed using the COMSOL software package. Numerical experiments are being conducted to examine: (1) the influence of the surface mixing zone, spatial variations in surface topography, and depression storage on pathogen removal; (2) the dynamic interactions of surface and subsurface water flow on pathogen transport; (3) the influence of pathogen size; and (4) and the role of pathogen retention parameters. The dual permeability pathogen transport model was coupled to solution ionic strength (IS). In particular, the relevant retention model parameters (sticking efficiency, maximum retention capacity, and release rate) were continuously updated at each time step to reflect differences in solution IS. This model was used to simulate previously measured colloid and microorganism (E. coli D21 g and coliphage ÆX174) release behavior with transients in IS. Laboratory and numerical studies were conducted to investigate the influence of physical and chemical factors on the transport of E.coli O157:H7 and coliphage ÆX174 through preferential flow systems. Preferential flow systems were created in 13.2 cm diameter and 20 cm length columns by embedding sand lens of various grain size, length, and vertical position into finer textured matrix sand. Tracer solutions containing bromide and microbes were prepared at different ionic strength (IS) and sprayed onto the surface of the columns at desired steady rates using a rain simulator to achieve saturated or unsaturated conditions. Effluents were collected at the column bottom continuously and analyzed for concentrations of bromide, ÆX174, and E.coli. Complementary numerical simulations were conducted using the HYDRUS 2D code over a wider range of physical and chemical conditions, and to analyze bromide and microbe transport in the columns. Short (two to five days) courses were offered on how to use HYDRUS models at a) University of Calgary, Alberta, b) Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic, c) Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, and d) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria. Over 60 students participated in these short courses. Idaho: Organized and hosted the Innovative Working Group meeting on 'Identifying complementary indicators of ecological thresholds in a changing climate.' The IWG was held from February 2--5, 2011 at the McCall Outdoor Science School in Central Idaho. The IWG brought together a cross-disciplinary group of scientist to develop the idea of identifying complementary indicators of ecological thresholds in a changing climate. Outcomes of the IWG include responding to calls for proposals by the USDA, as well as furthering collaboration via the proposal of two targeted topical sessions at the 2011 AGU meeting and the development of a future synthesis paper and possibly a book publication. Chaired and organized a session on 'Detecting Thresholds of Ecosystem Resilience in a Changing Climate' with co-chairs Caiti Steele and Amanda White at the 2010 Fall Meeting of AGU. Chaired and organized a session on 'Water Resources: State and Change' with co-chairs with co-chair John Meija at the Tri-State Western Consortium Meeting. Iowa: New understanding of percolation-based scale-dependent properties of soil and rock was incorporated into a finite difference model of diffusion with nonlinear sorption, for use in predicting movement of groundwater pollutants. The program was used to analyze a published dataset, and it gave an improved understanding of the dynamics. Kentucky: A field-scale solute leaching experiment was conducted to improve understanding of the impact of land use, rainfall amount, intensity and application time delay on the leaching of bromide. A remote-sensing based experiment was conducted in a farmers field in Western-KY to test the improvement of N-fertilization through the use of the GreenSeeker and derived NDVI of winter wheat. An additive state-space statistical model was adapted for the analysis of agricultural experiments. Treatments can efficiently apply non-randomly but varying periodically at different scales so that underlying soil heterogeneity effects can be compensated in the analysis. A graduate level course in soil physics (with lab) was taught. Minnesota: Development of maps of regional groundwater recharge at multiple mapping scales. Assessment of the influence of land use and land cover change on the water balance of watersheds in Minnesota. Assessments of the quantity of near-channel erosion in selected watersheds in various regions of Minnesota. Modeling the process of subsurface flow on the erosion of stream banks, bluffs, and hillslopes. Development of models of freezing processes in soils. Oklahoma: Completed laboratory measurements of soil physical properties at all Oklahoma Mesonet stations. Managed and expanded the Marena Oklahoma In Situ Sensor Testbed (MOISST) in support of NASAs upcoming Soil Moisture Active/Passive (SMAP) satellite mission. Texas: Completed the second year of a study that involves detailed seasonal monitoring of soil water content within the root zone of deficit irrigated and fully irrigated sorghum. Evaluated the accuracy of TDR microlysimeters in providing daily and sub-daily estimates of soil water evaporation in this cropped field. Completed a four-year study comparing the hydrologic response of a cropped field to tillage or no tillage at two locations (Bushland, TX and Tribune, KS) and analysis of the extensive data set is continuing. Completed a study involving the use of column displacement experiments to evaluate the sensitivity of permittivity measurements to bulk electrical conductivity independent of soil water content for three sensors (5TE, Acclima, and TDR). Completed a multi-sensor field comparison of local soil water content and bulk electrical conductivity sensors. It involved six sensors each of the Decagon 5TE, Stephens Hydra Probe, Acclima ACC-TDT, and Campbell Scientific CS655 (an earlier field comparison employed the CS616). Sensor outputs in terms of permittivity (real or apparent), water content with factory calibration, temperature and bulk electrical conductivity were compared with values from the thermocouples and the TDR system (Evett et al., 2010b,c; 2011d,c; 2012c). Continued to monitor and maintain the TDR and thermocouple measurement system at the Marena, Okla., SMAP In-Situ Sensor Test Bed in cooperation with Tyson Ochsner. Conducted theoretical, laboratory and field investigations of a waveguide-on-access-tube (WOAT) soil water sensing system employing TDR technology. Designed several WOAT prototype tube segments (each 20-cm long) and tested them in water, ethylene glycol, and in sand and clay loam soils at several water contents. Conducted a field test of a 1.6-m deep multiple-segment WOAT assembly with comparison to neutron probe data during wetting and drying cycles (Casanova et al., 2011a,b,c, 2012). Helped organize the Joint Meeting of the Second International Soil Sensing Technology Conference, the Soil Physics Technical Committee Annual Meeting, and the ASA Sensor-based Water Management Community, which took place January 3-7, 2012, Honolulu, Hawaii, but were unable to attend. Utah: A $5000 grant proposal was submitted to and funded by USDA to support speaker travel to the University of Hawaii for the W2188 joint meeting with the 2nd International Soil Sensing Technology Conference held January 3-7, 2012. In Utah, a Cosmic ray Soil Moisture Observing System (COSMOS) instrument was installed at the T.W. Daniel Experimental Forest Research Site. The COSMOS instrument output can be related to soil moisture. We will be comparing our ground based soil moisture measurements to the COSMOS output. A second GPS-based instrument for estimating Snow Water Equivalent was installed 1000 m away in Docs Meadow. This instrument is operated by the University of Colorado in Boulder, CO. Collaboration with colleagues at China Agricultural University (CAU) to develop extended capability for the PHPP to measure soil dielectric for water content determination is ongoing. A modified electromagnetic sensor is being developed to couple with the electrodes within the footprint of the PHPP sensor. Washington: Applied a numerical model to predict seed-zone water contents and water potentials in late August or early September based on soil water content measured in early April. Studied the interactions of colloidal particles with the air-water interface. Quantified the effects of advancing and receding air-water interfaces on colloid detachment as a function of interface velocity. Continued our work on a numerical catchment-scale model that solves flow equations of surface and subsurface flow in a fully-integrated three-dimensional domain. The model directly interfaces with GIS data and provides algorithms for evapotranspiration and root water uptake. Tested the model by comparing simulated and observed soil water contents for a laboratory experiment on one-dimensional infiltration in a soil slab. The model successfully described the water balance and its components in each of the three experiments (laboratory, field, and catchment).Worked closely with the USDA NSERL (National Soil Erosion Research Lab) and the US Forest Service in developing the new online WEPP GIS interface. Evaluated the crop residue effects on snow distribution and the spatial variation of soil water storage for two adjacent fields near Pullman, Washington: one under NT, and the other under CT. The fields were surveyed during the winter and spring of 20072008 to assess topographic variations in snow depth, snow water equivalent (SWE), and soil water storage. Wyoming: Revamped an existing state-wide rainfall and soil moisture monitoring network of 20 sites during the summer and fall of 2011. The network sites were located in rangelands to study the annual variability in forage production in response to water availability (drought). As part of this project, plant cover, type, and biomass data were collected at the peak of the growing season in July. This is part of an ongoing three-year project, funded by the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station. In 2011, a new project was also initiated on the effect of coalbed methane product water on soil infiltration characteristics in the Powder River Basin (Wyoming Water Research Project funding). Soil and water samples from two sites were collected during fall 2011 to conduct preliminary laboratory infiltration studies. Milestones: Minnesota: Identified the increase in artificial drainage and land cover change as possible causes of the increase in flows within the Minnesota River Basin. Increases in precipitation have been considered the main cause for the increases in stream flow, but our results do not support this. It was demonstrated that the morphology of freezing in initially unsaturated soils consists of three zones - a fully saturated zone, an intermediate unsaturated zone with ice present, and an unsaturated unfrozen zone far from the freezing boundary. This model of freezing process was tested with laboratory data and was validated for the conditions given. Oklahoma: Develop a scientifically-sound procedure for interpolating plant available water between Mesonet sites. Create and release a new daily plant available water map for drought monitoring in Oklahoma. Discover the similarities and differences between plant available water and other significant drought indicators. Texas: A provisional patent application was filed on the waveguide-on-access-tube TDR system for sensing of soil water conduct, bulk electrical conductivity and temperature at multiple depths (Evett et al., 2011b). An SBIR Phase I grant proposal for feasibility investigation of the waveguide-on-access-tube TDR system was awarded and completed in 2011. The multiple sensor field comparison was completed in 2011 and preliminary reports made. Schwartz co-organized the symposium Measurement and Modeling of near-Surface Soil Water and Energy Fluxes: I and the coordinated poster session Measurement and Modeling of near-Surface Soil Water and Energy Fluxes: II at the ASA-CSSA-SSSA International Annual Meetings, Oct. 16-19, 2011 in San Antonio, Tex. The Second International Soil Sensing Technology Conference was held in Honolulu, Hawaii, January 3-7, 2012. Several peer-reviewed and proceedings papers were published, including a review paper on soil water sensing for water balance, ET and WUE (see publication listing). Wyoming: For 2012, we anticipate completing a modeling study on vertical water and heat fluxes in a snow-dominated forest ecosystem in southeastern Wyoming.