W2185: Biological Control in Pest Management Systems of Plants

(Multistate Research Project)

Status: Inactive/Terminating

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SAES-422 Reports

Annual/Termination Reports:

[01/11/2008] [05/21/2009] [02/10/2010] [03/10/2011] [01/09/2012]

Date of Annual Report: 01/11/2008

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 10/16/2007 - 10/18/2007
Period the Report Covers: 10/01/2006 - 09/01/2007

Participants

Brief Summary of Minutes

Minutes Attachment:

Attachment

Accomplishments

Publications

Publications Attachment:

Attachment

Impact Statements

At least two insects have very good potential to be specific, effective biological control agents, which may reduce the impact that cape ivy is having on biodiversity in coastal California.
Hawaii seed corn growers have a greater awareness of the effects of egg parasitoids in their crops.
Pesticide applications for H. zea control in Hawaii seed corn have been reduced by approx. 90%.
Releases of papaya mealybug parasitoids have raised awareness among growers of the need to carefully integrate natural enemies with pesticide releases.
Redistribution activities carried out in 2007 have led to the enhancement of biological control agent distributions against 13 noxious weeds throughout Washington state.
Property owners/managers realized an estimated cost savings of $500K in 2007 through the implementation of biological control in WA.
Intensive deployment of Mecinus janthinus has slowed Dalmatian toadflax invasiveness in Washington State, restored productivity of previously infested sites for animal foraging, and led to re-establishment of certain native plant species.
Research with Aphthona beetles in New Mexico, has convinced the Angel Fire City Council to modify their new construction laws to limit the movement of soil from any sites infested with leafy spurge.
Use of effective reduced-risk pesticides, combined with virus-resistant varieties and naturally occurring predators, promises to improve yield and quality of cucumber crops, reduce production costs, and reduce potential adverse impacts from multiple applications of the broad-spectrum organophosphates currently favored.
Information on non-target effects on thistle-feeding insects is expected to influence policy on the release of these insects for biological control of invasive thistles.
Recovery of Peristenus relictus (=stygicus) for three consecutive years suggests establishment of this beneficial organism in the Monterey Bay region, a major strawberry growing region.
Release and establishment of parasitoids for the vine mealybug and red imported fire ant will reduce the number of insecticide applications needed to manage these pests, thereby reducing economic, environmental, and human safety issues.
For the Diaprepes root weevil and the citrus leafminer, the natural enemies (introduced and native) will play an important role in managing both pests. For citrus leafminer, the potential exists for the natural enemies to lower densities of this pest to levels acceptable to growers.
Lowering aphid populations in broccoli plants through intercropping with flowers, applications of compost and mulching, seems a viable approach to significantly reduce use of external chemical inputs without sacrificing yields.
On greenhouse crops, genetically-modified predators being developed, may have improved ability to find and suppress populations of the twospotted mite.
Results suggest that spiromesifen has a dose-dependent effect against generalist predators and that low rates of this might may be useful in IPM for Bemisia tabaci.
Methods advance for using predator gut content ELISA and PCR assays to qualify the impact of indigenous predators.
The protein marking immunoassay provides a useful alternative to conventional marking techniques for mark-release-recapture and mark-capture studies. The technique is being used by researchers throughout the world to study various aspects of insect dispersal.
Surveys leading to the identification of the various strains/species of the Aphis gossypii and Pentalonia nigronervosa complex, along with the identification of associated natural enemies, will allow correct matching of natural enemies to the host pest in various regions of the Pacific.
Asian cycad scale appears to be under good biological control in many of the cycad growing areas of Guam, although tree mortality has been high. However, the introduction of C. pandava poses further threats to Guams ornamental and endemic cycad populations
County personnel have taken over the redistribution of Aphthona beetles from established insectaries in northern New Mexico.
Spotted knapweed density has been reduced by 95% in some areas of western Montana due to biological control.
Release and establishment of beneficial insects on salt cedar, puncturevine, the several spurge species, and squarrose knapweed are the first steps toward the development of a biological control program against these noxious weeds.
Development of procedures for rearing scale insects using breadfruit grown from root cuttings is facilitating current work on Icerya seychellarum biological control in American Samoa.
The possible introduction of a predator of Icerya seychellarum to Tau Island promises to provide sustained suppression of this important pest for the first time since its accidental introduction there in the 1990s.
Evaluation of the lethal and sublethal effects of insecticides and transgenic plants on key natural enemies through both field and laboratory studies will aid the development of pest management strategies that minimize disruption of biological control.

Date of Annual Report: 05/21/2009

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 03/22/2009 - 03/23/2009
Period the Report Covers: 10/01/2007 - 09/01/2008

Participants

Technical Committee Members and Visitors Present;

Andreas, Jennifer, Washington State University, Renton, WA;
Asher, Jerry, Bureau of Land Management Forest Service;
Bean, Dan, Colorado State Dept. of Agriculture, Palisade, CO;
Bentz-Blanco, Jo-Ann, USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Riverdale, MD;
Bernal, Julio, Dept. of Entomology, Texas A&M, College Station, TX;
Bloem, Ken, USDA-APHIS-CPHST, Raleigh, NC;
Bon, Marie-Claude, USDA-ARS-EBCL, Montpellier, FRANCE;
Braino, Juan, USDA-ARS, South American BC Lab., Buenos Aires, ARGENTINA;
Carruthers, Ray, USDA-ARS, WRRC, Albany, CA;
Center, Ted, USDA-ARS, Ft. Lauderdale, FL;
Coombs, Eric, Oregon Department of Agriculture, Salem, OR;
Coutinot, Dominique, USDA-ARS-EBCL, Montpellier, FRANCE;
Edelson, Jonathan, Dept. Entomol. & Plant Pathol., Oklahoma State Univ., Stillwater, OK;
Ellington, Joe, Dept. of Ento., Plant Path. & Weed Sci., New Mexico State Univ., Las Cruces, NM;
Ellsworth, Peter, Dept. of Entomology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ;
Evans, Ted, Dept. of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah;
Flanders, Robert, USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Riverdale, MD;
Geden, Chris, USDA-ARS, Gainesville, FL;
Gerling, Dan, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, ISRAEL;
Giles, Kris, Oklahoma State University;
Goolsby, John, USDA-ARS, Weslaco, TX;
Grevstad, Fritzi, University of Washington, Seattle;
Hackett, Kevin, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, MD;
Hagler, James, USDA-ARS, Phoenix, AZ;
Hansen, Rich, USDA-APHIS, Fort Collins, CO;
Hall, David, USDA-ARS, Ft. Pierce, FL;
Harwood, James, Dept. of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY;
Haverhals, Marijka, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID;
Hinz, Harriet, CABI Europe-Switzerland, Delemont, Switzerland;
Hoelmer, Kim, USDA-ARS-BIIR, Newark, Delaware;
Hunter, Molly, Dept. of Entomology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ;
Johnson, Seth, Dept. of Entomology, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA;
Jones, Walker, USDA-ARS-EBCL, Montpellier, FRANCE;
Kairo, Moses, Center for Biological Control, Florida A&M Univ., Tallahassee, FL;
Kaser, Joe, Dept. Crop & Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR;
Kring, Tim, Dept. of Entomology, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas;
LeBeck, Lynn, Assoc. of Natural Bio-control Producers, Clovis, CA;
Lee, Jana, USDA-ARS, Corvallis, OR;
Legaspi, Jesusa, USDA-ARS, Tallahassee, FL;
Leppla, Norman, Dept. of Entomology & Nematology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL;
Littlefield, Jeffrey, Department of Entomology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT;
Loope, Lloyd, USGS, Haleakala National Park, Hawaii;
Luck, Robert, Dept. of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA;
McEvoy, Peter, Dept. of Botany & Plant Path., Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR;
Messing, Russell, Plant and Environ. Protection Sci., Univer. of Hawaii, Kapaa, HI ;
Milan, Joseph, Bureau of Land Management, Idaho;
Miller, Ross, Coll. of Nat. & Applied Sciences, Univer. of Guam, Mangilao, GUAM ;
Mills, Nick, Dept. of ESPM, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA;
Naranjo, Steve, USDA-ARS, Phoenix, AZ;
Nechols, Jim, Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan KS ;
Norton, Andrew, Dept. Bioagric. Sci. & Pest Mgmt, Colorado State U., Fort Collins, CO;
Nowierski, Bob, USDA-CSREES, Washington DC;
Page, Shirley Wager, USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Riverdale, MD;
Pickett, Charlie, Biological Control Program, CDFA, Sacramento, CA ;
Pitcairn, Michael, Biological Control Program, CDFA, CA ;
Purcell, Matthew, USDA-ARS, Australian BC Lab, Indooroopilly, Queensland, AU;
Roderick, George, Dept. of ESPM, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA;
Rosenheim, Jay, Dept. of Entomology, Univ. of California, Davis, CA;
Runyon, Justin, USDA-Forest Service, Bozeman, MT;
Sanguankeo, Paolo, Olympic Nat. Res. Center, University of Washington;
Schmaedick, Mark, American Samoa Community College, Mapusaga, Tutuila, Am. Samoa;
Schwarzlaender, Mark, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID;
Sforza, Rene, USDA-ARS-EBCL, Monferrier Sur Lez, FRANCE;
Sing, Sharlene, USDA-USFS, Bozeman, MT;
Snyder, Bill, Dept. of Entomology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA;
Story, Jim, Montana State University, Bozeman;
Strickman, Daniel, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, MD;
Unruh, Tom, USDA-ARS, Wapato, WA;
Usnick, Shaharra, USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Western Region, Fort Collins, CO;
Wiedenmann, Robert, Dept. of Entomology, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas;
Williams, Livy, USDA-ARS, Reno, NV;
White, Jennifer, Dept. of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY;
Wood, Tara, Dept. of Entomology, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas;

Brief Summary of Minutes

Minutes Attachment:

Attachment

Accomplishments

Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Surveys for natural enemies in foreign countries are reported under Objective 2. Concurrent observations in American Samoa of the coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor, found densities had declined markedly from earlier surveys. Some predators that had established on Tutuila also colonized Tau Island, but other species did not. During this survey Pseudoscymnus anomalus, was widespread on Tau for the first time, suggesting possible fortuitous biological control. The erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae, continues to cause moderate to severe damage to Erythrina variegata trees in American Samoa. The Hawaii Department of Agriculture has been researching biological controls for this pest and recently began releases of a parasitoid in Hawaii. Depending on the progress of that program, the availability of parasitoids, and local stakeholder inputs, American Samoa may proceed with introductions in the coming year. Adult and larval specimens of chrysopids were collected, especially in Californias central valley. Specimens from several populations were reared and preserved for morphological study; additional specimens were sent to colleagues for analysis of courtship songs. A one year survey of natural enemies of Arundo donax has been conducted on the Rio Grande River from Del Rio to Brownsville, TX. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. The following exploratory research was conducted: Exploration for parasites of the light brown apple moth in Australia continued in 2008. Parasitoids are under evaluation at the UC Berkeley quarantine. Bactrocera oleae was collected in Namibia, Africa. Several kilos of collected fruit produced high numbers of olive fruit fly and attendant parasitoids. A species of Psyttalia, close to concolor, was the dominant parasitoid, followed by P. lounsburyi and Bracon spp. Collections of Lygus spp. were made for the first time in Morocco, Africa, by the USDA-ARS European Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL). Peristenus relictus was reared from collections and a culture was initiated at the EBCL. It is hoped that this strain should have a better chance at establishment in the southern San Joaquin Valley (CA) due to a better climatic match between this part of California and north Africa. Vine mealybug was collected in the Catalonia region of Spain. Over 400 females were successfully hand-carried and placed into culture at the UC Berkeley quarantine facility. Diaprepes root weevil was collected in Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Four species of parasitoids were recovered: Quadrastichus haitiensis, Barycarpus fennahi, Fidiobia citri, and Aprostocetus vaquitarum. Cooperative projects with colleagues in Brazil (Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense), Mexico (INIFAP), and Colombia (CIAT) continued. Emphasis in 2008 was on the seasonal occurrence and abundance of chrysopids in papaya orchards on the coast of central Brazil. A large number of species were collected, their taxonomy was determined and a report is being prepared for publication. Foreign exploration for natural enemies of A. donax has been conducted throughout the native range in Mediterranean Europe. Four agents have been selected and exported to U.S. quarantine facilities. Studies have been initiated in Spain to determine the field ecology and impact of the Arundo scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis on A. donax. No-choice oviposition and development tests with the seed-feeder C. turbatus were conducted in 2008. Tests were established with 13 test species, including 11 native to North America. Apart from those laid in L. draba, only one other egg was found, in the native North American Draba nemorosa, but no larvae developed. In contrast to previous years, all L. draba control plants were attacked and therefore valid and more eggs than usual were laid. An oogenesis test was established in 2008 to investigate whether P. wrasei that developed on the native North American Barbarea orthoceras and were maintained constantly on the same test plant species, would be able to produce eggs. Results revealed that beetles originating from B. orthoceras had significantly reduced feeding rates and laid significantly fewer eggs compared to beetles originating from and fed on L. draba. Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. The phylogeographic relationships of several taxa including potential biological control agents (e.g. Ceutorynchus species for garlic mustard) have been evaluated. Three species (Ceutorynchus scrobicolis) show genetic differentiation at a relatively small spatial scale (over 10s of km), indicating restricted dispersal, while the other two (C. roberti and C. alliaria) show differentiation over a much larger spatial scale, indicating greater dispersal abilities. Additionally, it was demonstrated that individuals of C. scrobicolis being used for host-specificity testing were collected from areas that can be considered single populations, genetically, making the entire area suitable for collection for release into North America, should a release be eventually approved. Systematics and comparative biological work continues on two fronts: the Chrysopidae of the USA and New World, in general. Long term priorities are on genera that have potential importance to biological control (e.g., Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes, Leucochrysa). Focus is on (a) a large neotropical genus in the tribe Chrysopini (Chrysopodes) and (b) generic level analysis of the large (probably paraphyletic) tribe Leucochrysini. Primary emphasis this year was analysis of type specimens held in European and North American museums; this effort is crucial to elucidating the taxonomy of the New and Old World chrysopids. Custom microsatellites for Arundo donax and the Arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana have been developed. The population structure of both A. donax and T. romana have been completed for the native range and the areas of introduction in North America. The Mediterranean coast of Spain appears to be the origin of the A. donax clone which is invasive in the Rio Grande Basin. Detailed morphological studies and the mitochondrial DNA based phylogeny of Rhinusa spp. have revealed a strong divergence between the two stem gall weevils, Rhinusa pilosa from L. vulgaris and R. brondelii from L. genistifolia which is in turn supported by clear differences in the biology of the two species. Genetic work carried out on several Mecinus species and populations indicate that the same level of differentiation and specialization occurs within this group of weevils. Mecinus heydeni is associated with L. vulgaris and M. laeviceps with L. genistifolia. A third undescribed species occurs in Macedonia on L. dalmatica ssp. Macedonica. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. Every year, more effort goes into testing natural enemies for host specificity prior to applying for environmental release. Examples follow. Host range testing between 6 different populations (from Greece, China, and Uzebekistan) continued testing the impact of saltcedar water stress on Diorhabda elongata fitness Host range of medfly parasitoids Fopius caudatus and Fopius ceratitivorus from Kenya were further delineated. F. caudatus appears restricted to Ceratitis; no non-target species are attacked. The gall mite, Aceria drabae (Acari: Eriophyidae), received from collaborators in Greece and strains from Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia, were evaluated. Host specificity tests were completed for the Greek population of the mite. Eighty plant species and numerous varieties/cultivars were tested in all. Aceria drabae was specific to its intended host Lepidium draba. Host specificity testing of a flower moth, Schinia cognate (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has been initiated, although mating problems and lack of oviposition has impeded progress. TAG petitions for release of the Arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana and the Arundo scale, Rhizaspdiotus donacis were submitted in 2008. TAG has recommended release of the Arundo wasp and review of the Arundo scale is pending. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Many releases and redistributions were carried out against pests in 2008. D. elongata from Greece were released at several sites in New Mexico against Tamarix spp.; those from Fukang, China, released near Lake Arthur, NM seem to have disappeared despite selection for beetles that can thrive under shorter day lengths. The rust fungus, Puccinia jaceae var. solstitialis, has been released as a biological control of yellow starthistle. In 2008, release material was provided to the Oregon Department of Agriculture where climate may be less limiting than California. Additional releases in the California are not anticipated as the fungus lifecycle seems poorly adapted to California climate such that a significant impact on yellow starthistle is unlikely. Releases of the Crete biotype of salt cedar leaf beetle, Diorhabda elongata, occurred in 2008 at nursery sites in Glenn and Tehama (California) counties in an effort to improve collection, transportation, release, and monitoring techniques for a redistribution program planned for 2009. Releases of the leaf beetles, Galerucella pusilla and G. calamarense, against L. salicaria, continued in Californias northern Sacramento Valley where the beetles have been difficult to establish. Inaccessible cliff lines in Guam were photographed from the air and analyzed using Adobe Photoshop to determine damage by the Asian cycad scale. R. lophanthae has been introduced from Hawaii to help control the scale. A recent expansion of the rearing effort on the root weevil, Cyphocleonus achates, resulted in a 150% increase in production. Over 77,000 adults of C. achates were released at over 80 locations in Montana in 2008. Over 10,000 adult Psyttalia nr. concolor (Namibia) were released at seven locations and 510 adult P. lounsburyi (Kenya) at three locations in northern and central California in 2008. The parasitoid, P. relictus, has now been recovered three consecutive years since last released into an organic strawberry farm in the Monterey Bay region of California. Preliminary observations suggest that the establishment of Rodolia pumila on Tau Island may finally provide relief from the chronic high density infestations of Icerya seychellarum on breadfruits, one of the islands most important staple food crops. Redistribution of natural enemies for biological control continued in Washington State for L. dalmatica, Centaurea spp., L. salicaria, Chondrilla juncea, S. tragus, V. thapsus, H. perforatum, A. alstroemeriana, C. arvense, Senecio jacobaea, Cynoglossum officinale, and Centaurea solstitialis. Anagyrus loeki was reared and released against papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) in infested areas in Hawaii. Releases have been conducted in major papaya growing areas on Oahu and Hawaii and plumeria growing areas on Molokai. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. The variability in success of open field Diorhabda elongata beetle releases in different regions of the western United States is unexplained. A common garden of saltcedar from 12 different locations in the western US was established at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Artesia, NM. Beetle fitness was significantly different between T. parviflora and T. ramosissima and between some of the T. ramosissima collections suggesting that tree genetics is important. The Cecidomyiid, Asphondylia prosopidis, a North American native, has been identified as a potentially useful agent on honey mesquite in South Africa. Studies are determining the geographic range, biotic potential, ecological relationships and rearing methods of the gall fly. Initial data indicate there are actually four species in this bud gall complex. Six pairs of field sites in CA were established for the future release and evaluation of Ceratapion bassicorne, a new beneficial rosette weevil that will be hopefully be approved for use against yellow starthistle in 2009. A greenhouse study on the combination of simulated mowing and infection with the systemic pathogen, Albugo candida, on perennial pepperweed growth and survivorship was performed. Plants infected with the pathogen were less able to recover from mowing than plants not infected. A spotted knapweed population crash that occurred in one area in 2004 due to C. achates remained at very low levels in 2008. Similar declines in knapweed density following dramatic increases in the C. achates population are now occurring in other areas of Western Montana. Parasitism of the cereal leaf beetle (Oulema melanopus) by the parasitoid Tetrastichus julius (Eulophidae) was determined throughout the growing season by sampling fields of small grains (barley, wheat, and oat) farmed by cooperators in northern Utah. The intensity of parasitism of cereal leaf beetle larvae was also evaluated as influenced by tillage practice, through field experiment. Field studies were continued to evaluate the effectiveness of seed-feeding insect biological control agents (Urophora quadrifasciata, Larinus minutus, and Sphenoptera jugoslavica), now widely established in the west desert of Utah on the noxious weed, squarrose knapweed. Knapweed populations were sampled to compare both spatial variation as well as seasonal patterns in the intensity of attack among these agents, and to determine patterns of shared use of individual seedheads by the two seed predators (U. quadrifasciata and L. minutus). Laboratory experiments and field observations made between 2006 and 2008 were used to quantify the impacts of the stem mining weevil, Mecinus janthinus, on the two morphotypes in northeastern WA. M. janthinus adults fed more heavily on broad-leaved than on narrow-leaved plants in the field throughout the season. In the laboratory, weevils made more oviposition scars on the broad-leaved form and contributed to lower seed capsule production for those plants, especially at higher experimental densities. Aboveground biomass ratios for broad-leaved plants were lower than for narrow-leaved plants both in the laboratory and field. These study results indicate that M. janthinus exhibited greater impacts on the broad-leaved than on the narrow-leaved Dalmatian toadflax morphotype. A follow up study of the bionomics of the gall midge, Cystiphora schmidti (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) against Rush Skeletonweed, indicated significant impact of predators and parasitoid on the population development of the midge. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Studies on the native natural enemies attacking the citrus leafminer in the San Joaquin Valley were conducted at permanent sampling sites established in Kern and Tulare Counties (CA). Samples were collected at approximately monthly intervals from February through November 2008. The population of adult moths peaked in October and November, although a small number of moths were collected throughout the entire sampling period. Larval populations were greatest in October and November. No parasitoids were found attacking the larvae at the sample sites. Naturally occurring egg parasitism of the light brown apple moth is being monitored at several coastal California sites using sentinel egg cards. To date, two species have been found: Trichogramma platneri and T. fasciatum. This is the first record of T. fasciatum occurring in the United States. Egg parasitism varied widely by site and by host plant. After nearly four years of monitoring the avocado lace bug it was determined that populations of the bug have low outbreak potential. No natural enemies (mainly egg parasitoids) were discovered in Mexico for possible use in classical biological control program. As a result, this project was discontinued. Ovarian development and oviposition dynamics of two prominent species of lady beetle in Utah alfalfa fields, Coccinella septempunctata L. and C. transversoguttata richardsoni Brown, were analyzed in laboratory experiments in which the predators major prey in alfalfa fields (pea aphids) were provided in large numbers and then removed. Intraguild predation of eggs among lady beetles that occur in alfalfa fields in Utah was investigated for two species (Coccinella septempunctata and Harmonia axyridis; Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) when eggs from allopatric versus sympatric populations were provided to intraguild predators. Field-based life table studies in Turkish cotton demonstrated that predators and parasitoids of Bemisia tabaci inflict high levels of mortality on immature stages of the pest. Parasitism by aphelinid parasitoids was identified as the key factor and both parasitism and predation supplied high levels of irreplaceable mortality. Feasibility studies were conducted to determine if protein markers can be substituted for pest-specific ELISA and PCR assays for the molecular detection of prey in predator guts. Preliminary results showed that prey marking can be a powerful method for the immunological detection of predation and can be used to study various aspects of predator feeding behavior. Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Diorhabda elongata beetles feeding for as few as three days on low quality dry foliage, commonly found in field populations that have been heavily defoliated, resulted in beetles exhibiting almost a complete loss of egg production that did not recover until two weeks after having access to quality foliage. Surveys continued on invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands, to determine their disruptive potential to biocontrol agents. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for whitefly control. Results confirmed the selectivity of spiromesifen and spirotetramat for whitefly; natural enemies were largely unaffected. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for Lygus bug control in cotton. The selectivity of flonicamid and metaflumizone for Lygus bugs were confirmed; natural enemies were largely unaffected. A meta-analysis was completed using existing laboratory and field studies from the literature comparing the impact of Bt crops (cotton, maize, potato, eggplant, rice) to non-Bt crops on the life history performance and abundance of nontarget arthropods. Based on 134 laboratory studies and 63 field studies Bt crops, and the protein toxins they expres, are highly selective to the targeted pests. An associated study showed that laboratory toxicity studies are good predictors of expected field level effects of Bt crops. Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. Research in Yolo County, CA compared pest and natural enemy densities in processing tomato fields with or without an adjacent hedgerow of native plants. The hedgerows were designed to provide a continuous supply of floral resources for beneficial insects. Adults of the consperse stink bug, Euschistus conspersus Uhler, overwintered in hedgerows and its nymphs developed on seeds and fruit of certain plants. Scelionid egg parasites of stink bugs were also recovered in the hedgerows. However, there was no significant effect of hedgerows on stink bug counts or rates of egg parasitization in tomato fields. The impact of cover cropping on Trichogramma spp. parasitizing Helicoverpa zea on seed corn was investigated. They may invade crop areas following population growth on cover crops such as sunn hemp and buck wheat. Studies were continued to identify and quantify the population dynamics and seasonality of natural enemies associated with two new crops for the desert, lesquerella and guayule. Lesquerella in particular harbors a large diversity of generalist predators and parasitoids and could be potentially important source of these beneficial arthropods for cotton and other crops. Studies were initiated to examine the movement of lygus bugs and associated natural enemies between alfalfa strips planted within an organic strawberry field. Preliminary results indicated that lygus and several species of predators remain in the alfalfa trap crop and do not disperse far into the adjacent strawberries. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. Augmentative releases of Trichogramma papilionis against Helicoverpa zea in seed corn and sweet corn are being investigated in Hawaii. Commercial scale releases are being conducted and Pioneer HiBred has set up a rearing facility for releases in their facilities. Researchers at the NY-CUAES (in collaboration with colleagues in Mexico and Brazil) continue to evaluate the potential of chrysopids for mass-rearing and release in the U.S.A. and Latin America. Emphasis in Mexico is on Ceraeochrysa species against homopteran pests of citrus; that in Brazil focuses on Chrysopodes and Leucochrysa species against homopteran pests of fruit and vegetable crops. In all cases, the larvae carry camouflaging debris on their dorsa. Biological studies of two candidate agents for Arundo donax have been completed. Field studies have also been initiated to assess the potentially complementary or competitive interactions among different biological control agents attacking the reproductive parts of Russian knapweed. In particular, the impact of a tephritid gall fly, a potential biological control agent, has been assessed on the seed output of Russian knapweed in the presence and absence of the gall wasp A. acroptilonica and the gall midge J. ivannikovi. It appears that the tephritid gall fly, in combination with the gall wasp has a complementary effect on seed output, but that it does not further increase herbivore impact when combined with the already highly effective gall midge. Objective 11. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Studies have been reported under many of the other objectives. A few examples follow: Five of the known ecotypes of D. elongata (against saltcedar) are being maintained in the New Mexico State University quarantine lab. Populations from the following locations are in culture: Crete, Greece; Possidi, Greece; Sfax, China; Fukang, China, and Karshi, Uzebekistan. Mass rearing and mass application methods are being developed in collaboration with USDA-APHIS, Mission Plant Protection and Diagnostics Laboratory and Aircraft and Equipment Operations at Moore Airbase, Edinburg, TX. Methods are being evaluated for mass rearing, collection and release of the diaspid scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis. Objective 12. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. Inundative strategies continue to be used successfully against small patches of leafy spurge. Aphthona lacertosa and A. nigriscutis were spread evenly over patches of leafy spurge at densities of 160 beetles per square meter. As in previous years, over 95 percent control of above-ground biomass was seen in the year after release, especially on upland sites. Beetles seem to stay in high numbers even three to four years after release despite almost non-existent leafy spurge populations. Research has been initiated to evaluate the impacts of the Arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana in an augmentative release program. Aerial and ground release methods, integrated with selective mechanical and chemical controls, are being investigated. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control. Objective 13. Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents. Long-term censusing of lady beetle species assemblages occurring in alfalfa fields of Utah was continued to evaluate effects of the introduction and establishment of the exotic lady beetle, Coccinella septempunctata, on native coccinellids. The economic impact of Arundo donax on water supplies has been documented by economists at Texas A&M University. As part of their study they have analyzed the economic benefits of a biological control program. Objective 14. Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. In March 2008 about 30 quarantine personnel on Guam, the CNMI, the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were trained in the importance of natural enemies in regulating populations of invasive insect pests in Micronesia, with special recognition of the potential impact of aphids and ants if not intercepted or detected at or shortly after introduction to the islands. Three seminars on the biology and damage of the Diaprepes root weevil were given to various grower, industry, and scientific groups in CA. Two presentations were made to K-12 students and one presentation to an undergraduate class at UC Berkeley on the threat of invasive species to California agriculture. A three-hour short course on biological control was given to CA county biologists as preparation for a licensing exam. Three outreach talks were given to Colorado weed biological control programs in 2008. Presentations were made to the Colorado Weed Network (50 participants), the Colorado Watersheds Conference (30 participants) and the North Fork Weed Cooperative (15 participants).

Publications

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Impact Statements

The last remaining substantial population of leafy spurge in New Mexico has been controlled. Aphthona remain in good numbers and are still collectable; however not in numbers previously collected.
Saltcedar biological control continues to receive a lot of press coverage increasing the awareness of biological control to the general public.
Preliminary evaluation of data on the yellow starthistle rust indicates that climate may limit the number of rust generations per season thereby limiting the number of teliospores that are available to establish succeeding years epidemics. Future selection of rust biological controls will benefit from this knowledge.
Utilization of paired monitoring plots at field sites will provide the best information on the impact of released biological control agents. Paired sites are being used in CA to evaluate impact of M. janthinus on Dalmation toadflax and C. bassicorne on yellow starthistle.
Regional distribution of beneficial insects on salt cedar, leafy spurge, purple loosestrife are critical steps in the implementation of a statewide biological control program against these noxious weeds.
Spotted knapweed density has been reduced by 95% in some areas of western Montana due to biological control.
A large collection of Psyttalia nr. concolor (Namibia) allowed for a good early season start in field releases of this parasitoid in California. A contract was established with the Cohen Israel Institute of Biological Control to help rear of P. lounsburyi and P. nr. concolor (Namibia) for releases in California in 2009.
Recovery of Peristenus relictus for three consecutive years in a commercial strawberry field documents permanent establishment of this beneficial organism in the Monterey Bay region, a major strawberry growing region.
Release and establishment of parasitoids for the vine mealybug and red imported fire ant will reduce the number of insecticide applications needed to manage these pests, thereby reducing economic, environmental, and human safety issues.
For the Diaprepes root weevil and the citrus leafminer, the natural enemies (introduced and native) will play an important role in managing both pests. For citrus leafminer, the potential exists for the natural enemies to lower densities of this pest to levels acceptable to growers.
Educating growers and the general public on what to expect from newly emerging pests and the possibilities of using biological control as part of the management program contributes a great deal to the success of the biological control program.
Results suggest that hedgerows, which are designed to enhance pollinators, and predators and parasites of pests, do not exacerbate stink-bug pests of processing tomato.
Redistribution activities carried out in 2008 have led to the enhancement of biological control agent distributions against 12 noxious weeds throughout Washington. Intensive deployment of Mecinus janthinus has retarded Dalmatian toadflax invasiveness, facilitated the restoration of previously infested sites for animal foraging, and led to the re-establishment of native plant species. Property owners/managers realized an estimated cost savings of $550K in 2008 through the implementation of weed biocontrol.
Work on Tamarix biological control indicates that not all sites are suitable for insectary establishment, and that the best sites are characterized by more vigorous, but widely spaced trees. This will aid in the selection of future Diorhabda release sites. Ultimately, reduced densities of tamarisk will provide enhanced habitat for native animals and plants and will provide for enhanced recreational experiences along Western rivers.
Advances have been made in understanding how to conserve and measure the activity of native natural enemies of several major pests of cotton using life table and molecular techniques.
Evaluation of the lethal and sublethal effects of insecticides and transgenic plants on key natural enemies through both field and laboratory studies will aid the development of pest management strategies that minimize disruption of biological control.
We continue to advance methods for using predator gut content ELISA and PCR assays to qualify the impact of indigenous predators. New molecular methods are being developed that will enable us to quantify the predation rates of an entire arthropod assemblage.
The protein marking immunoassay provides a useful alternative to conventional marking techniques for mark-release-recapture and mark-capture studies. The technique is being used by researchers throughout the world to study various aspects of insect dispersal.
The ecological benefit from biological control of Arundo donax to the Rio Grande Basin and other areas impacted by this invasive weed could be enormous. Failure to control this invasive plant puts entire riparian ecosystems at risk. Biological control of A. donax will undoubtedly produce more social and political support for the continued restoration of the Rio Grande Basin and other parts of N. America. The direct economic benefit will be great since hundreds of millions of dollars are spent annually on chemical and cultural controls of A. donax. The environmental impacts from successful biological control will be great, especially if other exotic weeds in the same habitat are also controlled. As ecosystems recover from reduction of A. donax, there should be a positive cascade effect throughout the food web of the riparian zones.

Date of Annual Report: 02/10/2010

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 10/08/2009 - 10/09/2009
Period the Report Covers: 10/01/2008 - 09/01/2009

Participants

See meeting minutes.

Brief Summary of Minutes

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Accomplishments

Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Surveys for natural enemies in foreign countries are reported under Objective 2. To facilitate surveys of natural enemies in the USA, taxonomic materials were developed for identifying chrysopids. Adult and larval specimens of chrysopids were collected in Californias central and Owens valleys. Specimens from several populations were reared and preserved for morphological study; additional specimens were sent to colleagues for analysis of courtship songs. Survey of assassin bugs in Southern California and adjacent areas with an emphasis on the genera Zelus and Apiomerus (Reduviidae: Harpactorinae) has continued in 2009. Several species of Zelus are native to California and species in the genus are documented to feed on prey organisms such as lygus bugs, caterpillar larvae, and boll weevils. Up to date information on distribution and natural history of these species is virtually non existent. This years collecting efforts in San Bernardino, Riverside, and San Diego counties as well as Baja California, Mexico and Arizona are the first steps towards updated distribution maps of these species. In addition, our lab continues to identify and database specimens on loan from major natural history collections in the US and Mexico to generate distribution maps for the genera Apiomerus and Zelus. To date, we have databased more than 8,300 specimens of Apiomerus and 1,200 specimens of Zelus and these data are available through the online mapping interface at http://www.discoverlife.org/ . A National Science Foundation project is in progress that will expand on this collection of specimen data and re-evaluate species concepts within Apiomerus and Zelus, generate distribution maps and identification keys. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. African rue continues to spread and become more dense in southern New Mexico. Since it appears to be a likely candidate for biological control we have provided funding, equipment and technical assistance to a scientist in Turkey to collect and provide us with Thamnurgus pegani (Scolytidae) for host range testing. Ecological studies of the impact of the arundo scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis are on-going in Spain. Investigations into the field biology and impact of the scale on Arundo donax in its native range are on-going. Exploration for parasites of the light brown apple moth (LBAM) in Australia continued in 2009. In New Zealand, approximately 140 LBAM larvae were collected on the south island. On the north island, a similar number were found and little more than 50 larvae were collected in the foothills surrounding Hawke Bay. The majority of specimens were collected on scotch broom and to a lesser extent on gorse. Parasitoids emerging in quarantine from this material included Dolichogenidea tasmanica, Glyptapanteles demeter, and Goniozus sp. (family Bethylidae). Rearing of the latter two species in quarantine was unsuccessful. The olive fly is now present throughout most of the olive growing regions of California. The USDA-ARS European Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL) in Montpellier, France and the California Department of Food and Agriculture performed foreign exploration for new natural enemies of the olive fly, both directly by staff scientists and by contract with local scientists. From March to May 2009, collections of wild olives were made in the Otavi, Grootfontein region, north of Windhoek in Namibia, Africa. A species of Psyttalia, close to concolor, was the dominant parasitoid, followed by P. lounsburyi and Bracon spp. Psyttalia concolor (Namibia) remained the dominant species throughout the collection period at this location. The olive psyllid was first reported infesting olives in California summer 2007 in Orange County. Since then, it has been reported in San Diego and Riverside Counties. During April 2009, scientists traveled to eastern Spain, France, and Greece to collect olive psylla. A small number of psyllid mummies were returned to the UC Berkeley quarantine. The few parasites (Psyllaephagous sp.) emerging from these mummies were not enough to sustain a culture. Collections are expected next year, slightly later in the spring when higher numbers of psylla should be available. Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. Systematics and comparative biological work on lacewings continued on two fronts: the Chrysopidae of the USA and New World, in general. Long term priorities are on genera that have potential importance to biological control (e.g., Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes, Leucochrysa). A large publication on important chrysopid types in the National Museum of Natural History in Paris was published. Two new Chrysopodes species were described from South America, and significant, agriculturally important variation in the life histories of several Leucochrysa (Nodita) species was discovered. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers were used to confirm systematic identity and to examine genetic divergence among invasive populations of the Erythrina gall wasp from Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, and China. Samples from all invasive populations showed a complete lack of genetic diversity, and confirm that a single species is involved in the dramatic, recent range expansion. Studies on the phylogenetic relationships of Apiomerus and Zelus using molecular and morphological information are in progress. Efforts focued on both, placements of these genera within the tribes Apiomerini and Harpactorini and on species-level phylogenies within these genera. a) A morphological study in progress has resulted in a phylogeny of genera within Apiomerini, indicating that Apiomerus is monophyletic and that three South and Central American genera are among its closest relatives; b) A molecular study based on 16S and 28S data tests and evaluates species-groups within the genus Apiomerus and confirms the monophyly of the crassipes and pictipes species groups. c) A taxonomic revision including a specie-level cladistic analysis of the crassipes and pictipes species group and a manuscript are in progress. d) A molecular phylogenetic analysis of Harpactorini confirms the monophyly of the genus Zelus, places it in an exclusively Neotropical clade of Harpactorini, and tests species-group arrangements within the genus. A new research program focuses on systematics of the Asian Citrus Psyllid, the vector of Citrus Greening Disease, and its relatives within the genus Diaphorina (Psylloidea). The systematics of Diaphorina is largely unknown and investigations now focus on a molecular study based on broad sampling of Diaphorina species in South East Asia, the Near East, and South Africa. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. Every year, more effort goes into testing natural enemies for host specificity prior to applying for environmental release. The following are studies directly related to host specificity testing. Five of the known ecotypes of Diorhabda elongate, beetles that feed on saltcedar (Tamarix spp.), were maintained in quarantine. The impact of saltcedar water stress and nutrient availability on beetle fitness experiments was continued in 2009. Draft Environmental Assessments for the field release in Hawaii of Binodoxys communis (against aphids) and Fopius ceratitivorus (against medfly) were submitted. State of Hawaii permits were issued for the aphid parasitoid. Host specificity testing of Schinia cognate, a moth that feeds on rush skeletonweed, has been initiated, although mating problems and lack of oviposition under laboratory/ greenhouse conditions has impeded progress. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Many releases and redistributions were carried out against pests in 2009. Over 113,000 adults of C. achates were released at over 100 locations in Montana for spotted knapweed. Rearing procedures continue to be refined and improved to learn more about the insect and host plant. Extensive redistribution of the foliage feeding/stem boring weevil Mecinus janthinus occurred in 2009. This insect continues to have a demonstrable impact on populations of Dalmatian toadflax found throughout the entire state of Washington. Landowner and state/federal agency demand for the purple loosestrife feeding beetles Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla continued to remain high in 2009. May collections of overwintered adults generated 45,240 individuals, many of which were re-distributed in WA. Rush skeletonweed plants infested by the gall mite (Eriophyes chondrillae), gall midge (Cystiphora schmidti), and rust fungus (Puccinia chondrillina) were collected from mid-to late July for redirected movement into eastern WA counties. Approximately 3,000 lbs. of agent-infested plant material was redistributed. Limited collections and releases of Rhinusa tetrum were made in 2009. A total of 1,900 adults were introduced into Washington counties. The larvae of this beetle consume about 50% of mullein's seed crop. Data similar to these examples is available at the W2185 website for releases and distributions of natural enemies against the following: poison hemlock, Canada thistle, yellow starthistle, saltcedar (Tamarix spp.), leafy spurge, musk thistle, spotted knapweed, tansy ragwort, Russian knapweed, rush skeletonweed, dalmatian toadflax, puncturevine, Mediterranean sage, Geraldton carnation spurge, oblong spurge, purple loosestrife, and arundo. Similar release and redistribution results are available for projects against whiteflies, olive fly, Diaprepes root weevil, Western tarnished plant bug, vine mealybug, and the Asian citrus psyllid. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. Ongoing surveys were conducted to evaluate effectiveness of Rhizobius lophanthae, on controlling populations of the Asian cycad scale, Aulocaspis yasumatsui on Cycas micronesica on Guam. Studies were also conducted to evaluate predations rates of R. lophanthae at different heights above ground to understand why there is little recruitment of C. micronesica seedlings into the forest population of trees. The effects of C. achates on knapweed biomass, plant height, number of flower buds, and plant density were assessed. Spotted knapweed populations that collapsed in many areas of western Montana in 2004 due to C. achates remained at very low levels in 2009. Results indicate that seed head insects are reducing spotted knapweed seed production by about 94% in many areas of west-central Montana. Of the seed head insects, the fly, Urophora affinis, and the weevils, Larinus obtusus and L. minutus, are having the greatest impact on knapweed seed production. Results indicated that spotted knapweed should not be mowed at the bolting and flower bud stages if large populations of seed head insects, primarily Urophora affinis and Larinus spp., are present because mowing can result in the formation of new seed heads which escape the insects attack, thus allowing greater seed production. A survey of Russian thistle was begun throughout eastern Washington to ascertain the extent of Coleophora klimeschiellas occurrence, and to assess any negative influence of parasitism/predation that may be preventing the moth from being able to successfully control S. tragus. Data obtained so far indicate that several different parasitoid species attack the moth larvae and populations of the wasps may reach levels at some locations that may impact moth efficacy. Experiments to determine the impact of Rhinocyllus conicus, the thistle head weevil, on the endangered Sacramento Mountains Thistle began in 2007. Data collected this year suggest that the weevils may not develop well on C. vinaceum, probably due in part to competition with the native weevil, Lixus pervestitus and the native tephridid, Paracantha gentilis which all but eliminated seed production at several sites. Fields of small grains in Utah were sampled weekly throughout the growing season to determine levels of parasitism of Oulema melanopus by the parasitoid Tetrastichus julius. Emphasis was placed on comparing cereal leaf beetle parasitism in fields newly rotated into small grains versus fields that had been planted with small grains as well during the previous year. The outcomes of intrinsic competition between the African egg-attacking parasitoid Fopius ceratitivorus and three larval-attacking parasitoids within their host [medfly], were compared. F. ceratitivorus eliminated the co-evolved Psyttalia concolor through physiological suppression of egg development. However, F. ceratitivorus was unable to suppress development of two non-co-evolved larval parasitoids; larvae of the Asian and Australian parasitoid species physically killed F. ceratitivorus larvae inside the host. The results suggest that co-evolutionary history influences competitive superiority in this guild of medfly parasitoids. Studies examined the trophic effects of natural population variation in cabbage glucosinolate chemistry on the generalist herbivore Trichoplusia ni and its parasitoid Copidosoma floridanum. Cabbage loopers appear to be negatively affected by aliphatic glucosinolates whereas C. floridanum appears to be most negatively affected by indole glucosinolates. Three parasitoids were released for controlling giant whitefly in California: Entodononecremnus krauteri, and Idioporus affinis, and Encarsiella noysei. The latter two have spread and were recently moved to San Luis Obispo Co. where giant whitefly had reached high densities. A monitoring and evaluation study continued into 2009. The parasitoid, Idioporus affinis, has been recovered in increasing numbers from both counties. Field sites were established in 2008 to monitor the impact of Mecinus janthinus on Dalmation toadflax at a large infestation in Los Angeles County. Mecinus janthinus seems to have established well and spread several meters attacking most plants with five meters of release locations. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Field-based life table studies in Arizona cotton are being conducted to examine the comparative role of natural enemies and plant stress on Bemisia tabaci population dynamics. Studies continue on applying immunological techniques to field studies of lygus dispersal. Three protein-specific ELISAs have been optimized and reseachers are currently using multiple proteins to mark a wide variety of insects directly in the field using a standard broadcast spray rig. Our major focus in California is aimed at (1) quantifying the long range dispersal of lygus between cotton and alfalfa and (2) quantifying the short range dispersal of lygus and its natural enemies between strawberry, strip alfalfa (trap cropping), and native weeds. Reproductive responses to prey availability were analyzed for two prominent species of ladybird beetles in Utah alfalfa fields, Coccinella septempunctata L. and C. transversoguttata richardsoni Brown, in laboratory experiments in which the predators' major prey in alfalfa field, the pea aphid, was provided in varying quantities to predators. Naturally occurring egg parasitism of the light brown apple moth (LBAM) in California is being monitored at several coastal sites using sentinel egg cards. To date, two species have been found: Trichogramma platneri and T. fasciatum. This is the first record of T. fasciatum occurring in the United States. Studies of the native natural enemies attacking the citrus leafminer in the San Joaquin Valley were conducted at permanent sampling sites in Kern and Tulare Counties. Samples were collected at approximately monthly intervals from April through October 2009. The population of adult moths peaked in August and September, although a small numbers of moths were collected throughout the entire sampling period. Larval moth populations were greatest in June through September. No parasitoids were found attacking the larvae at the sample sites. However, a small percentage of the larvae (2.6 - 13%) had been preyed on by unknown arthropod predators at some sites. Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Survey work continued on invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands. This activity is part of an ongoing USDA-APHIS-CAPS funded project on the surveillance of Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and other Mariana Islands. During 2009, work has focused on understanding the degree to which cannibalism and intraguild predation affecting the omnivorous biological control agent Geocoris pallens may constrain its ability to suppress populations of Lygus hesperus feeding on cotton. Results indicate that whereas intraguild predation appears to be generally unimportant, cannibalism is a major limit to the population growth of Geocoris. Diorhabda elongata beetles feeding for as few as three days on low quality dry foliage commonly found in field populations that have been heavily defoliated, resulted in beetles exhibiting almost a complete loss of egg production that did not recover until two weeks after having access to quality foliage. Also, the Elm leaf beetle egg parasitoid, Oomyzus (=Tetrastichus) gallerucae, has been shown to attack D. elongata eggs in both choice and no-choice lab tests. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for Lygus bug control in cotton. The selectivity of flonicamid and metaflumizone for Lygus bugs were confirmed; natural enemies were largely unaffected. A meta-analysis of laboratory and field studies on the non-target effects of Bt transgenic crops showed that laboratory toxicity studies accurately or conservatively predict field level effects of Bt crops. Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. Preliminary field studies were conducted to assess the efficacy of methyl salicylate (MeSA - Pred-a-Lure) as an attractant for natural enemies in cotton. Studies were conducted to examine the movement of lygus bugs and associated natural enemies between alfalfa, cotton, lesquerella (a desert oil-seed crop) and guayule (a desert latex-source crop). Preliminary results indicated that lygus and several species of predators readily moved from senescing lesquerella into cotton but not guayule. Studies are underway to examine lygus and natural enemy movement between cotton and alfalfa. Statistical procedures are being developed to quantify long range dispersal using protein mark-capture technology. Studies are underway to examine the movement of lygus bugs and associated natural enemies between alfalfa strips planted within an organic strawberry field. Studies indicated that lygus and several species of predators remain in the alfalfa trap crop and do not disperse far (e.g., < 5.0-m) into the adjacent strawberries. Glassy winged sharpshooter-specific ELISA and PCR assays have been developed that detect predation events on the various lifestages of GWSS. These assays are being used to probe the guts of individual predators of GWSS collected over a two year period from a citrus field that was exposed to three different irrigation regimes. Studies are underway to evaluate the effectiveness of using companion flower plantings to control European corn borer in peppers as a replacement for traditional insecticide programs. To accomplish this objective the following replicated treatments were prepared: 1) peppers grown with flowers, 2) peppers grown with flowers and treated with spinosad once a week based on backlight catches, 3) peppers grown with flowers and treated with spinosad every two weeks based on blacklight catches, 4) peppers grown without flowers but treated with spinosad once a week based on blacklight catches, 5) peppers grown without flowers and treated with spinosad every two weeks based on blacklight catches, and 6) peppers grown without flowers or treated with spinosad.This project utilized plantings of dill, coriander and buckwheat as companion planting with bell peppers for the purpose of observing the impact on fruit damage caused by European corn borer. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. Researchers at the NY-CUAES (in collaboration with colleagues in Mexico and Brazil) continue to evaluate the potential of chrysopids for mass-rearing and release in the U.S.A. and Latin America. Emphasis in Mexico is on Ceraeochrysa species against homopteran pests of citrus; that in Brazil focuses on Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes and Leucochrysa species against homopteran pests of fruit and vegetable crops. In all cases, the larvae carry camouflaging debris on their dorsa. To investigate predation strategies and natural history of species of the genus Zelus, lab cultures were kept of two species of Zelus and one species of each of Apiomerus, Sinea, and Pselliopus. The culture of Zelus tetracanthus is currently being set up for natural history data collection and bioassays that might shed light on the involvement of pheromones in the mating behavior of this species. Investigations were initiated on predation behavior and maternal care in species of Apiomerus and has focused on a comparative morphological study of structures involved in these behaviors and included several species of Apiomerus and other Apiomerini. Research continues towards a long-term goal of evaluating the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, for improved foraging efficiency and augmentative biological control of the twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae, on greenhouse vegetable and floricultural crops. During the past year work was performed on two aspects related to predator foraging efficiency: (1) influence of plant architecture, prey distribution, and location of predator release; and (2) effect of artificial selection for enhanced foraging traits on distribution of predators and prey consumption. In a greenhouse experiment, P. persimilis consumed more prey on multi-leafed cucumber plants with smaller leaves than on plants with two larger leaves. Releasing predators at the bottom of plants closer to spider mite infestations resulted in higher prey consumption and predator oviposition than when predators were released at the top of the canopy further away from the prey patch. Previous reports established genetic lines of P. persimilis which exhibit enhanced levels of one or more of four foraging traits: prey consumption, predator dispersal, conversion efficiency (number of predator eggs laid per prey consumed), and response to prey-induced olfactory cues. Current studies are comparing the high prey consumption and high predator dispersal lines with the unselected colony of P. persimilis to determine whether selection improves local (within-prey patch or within plant) and regional (among multiple plants) pest suppression. Early results from an experiment in which a single P. persimilis female was released into a prey patch on a 6-leafed cucumber plant in which either one leaf or all leaves contained prey eggs suggest that predators selected for high consumption produced more total progeny (implying more predation) than the line selected for high dispersal or the unselected colony. Data on prey consumption are pending. The biology of the arundo wasp, arundo scale and arundo fly have been completed. Biology's for the wasp and scale have been published. Objective 11. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Release methodology for D. elongata against saltcedar still has not been perfected. Many of the failures at establishing beetles may be a result of several things, including the number of beetles in the initial release, cage requirements to prevent dispersal, control of predators etc. Techniques to improve the establishment of D. elongata have been improved, however, site by site differences dictate the need for further consideration. Evaluations were completed on whether biological control of western flower thrips (WFT) using the predatory mite, Amblyseius cucumeris, could reduce or prevent the spread of the thrips-vectored tospovirus, Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), equally as well as conventional chemical control (spinosad, Conserve®) for WFT. Results of a multi-year greenhouse experiment in which healthy vining tomatoes were exposed to TSWV either by releasing WFT adults over a tomato crop with a portion of the plants virus-infected, or by releasing viruliferous thrips over a virus-free crop, showed that tomato yields were not affected by thrips management tactic. Also, there was no significant difference between biological and chemical control in the length of time that plants showed symptoms. However, the proportion of infected plants was marginally greater with biological control compared to chemical control at the mid-point of the experiment; differences were not significant thereafter. Findings suggest that augmentative biological control of WFT using A. cucumeris has the potential for preventing spread of TSWV with no greater risk to tomato plants than by using chemical control on commercial greenhouse crops. Methods to improve mass rearing of the arundo wasp have been tested in 2009. Large scale production of a stem galling wasp has proven to be challenging. Plant quality in term of stem hardness, plant tissue osmolality, nitrogen levels, and plant phenology have all been investigated to improve rearing. Objective 12. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. Inundative strategies continue to be used successfully against small patches of leafy spurge. Aphthona lacertosa and A. nigriscutis were spread evenly over patches of leafy spurge at densities of 160 beetles/m2. As in previous years, over 95% control of above-ground biomass was seen in the year after release especially on upland sites. Beetles seem to stay in high numbers even three to four years after release despite almost non-existent leafy spurge populations. The last remaining substantial population of leafy spurge in New Mexico has been controlled. Fewer than 1 stem/ m2 remain in the majority of the original infestation. Aphthona remain in good numbers and are still collectable; however not in numbers previously collected. Field studies are underway to determine the impact of augmentation of the arundo wasp to increase to increase field impacts. Methods have been developed for ground and aerial release of the arundo wasp to test augmentation strategies. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control. Objective 13. Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents. Anecdotal observations by extension agents indicate that Rodolia pumila introduced to Tau Island for control of Seychelles scale, Icerya seychellarum, has established and is providing good control. Quantitative assessment of the impact of R. pumila on I. seychellarum could not be completed during the reporting period. It had to be postponed due to transportation difficulties and gas shortages on the island. Long-term censusing of lady beetle species assemblages occurring in alfalfa fields of Utah was continued to evaluate effects of the introduction and establishment of the exotic lady beetle, Coccinella septempunctata, on native coccinellids. Studies showed that competitor-free space mediates the environmental impact of an introduced braconid parasitoid. Wasps that oviposit in a non-target gall-fly on lantana can escape lethal competition with another braconid that results when there is multi-parasitism in target tephritid fruit flies. Objective 14. Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. In April 2009 about 30 quarantine personnel on Guam, the CNMI, the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were trained in the importance of natural enemies in regulating populations of invasive insect pests in Micronesia, with special recognition of the potential impact of Hemiptera and ants if not intercepted or detected at or shortly after introduction to the islands. Regulations for importing natural enemies and prohibiting the entry of potential pests were discussed, along with methods for inspection and enforcement of regulations. This activity was performed as part of an annual PPQ workshop hosted by the University of Guam and sponsored jointly by the Secretariat of the Pacific Commission, the Guam Department of Agriculture and USDA-APHIS.Film footage was obtained documenting the impact of the Ta'u Island Seychelles scale biological control project and recording residents' perceptions of the project's outcome. The film will be edited for broadcast on local television to portray for the public an example of the potential benefits of sound biological control practice. Eleven seminars or presentations on the biology and damage of the Diaprepes root weevil, Asian citrus psyllid, and other invasive pests were given to various grower, industry, and scientific groups. A training course on pest control, including biological control, was offered to county staff. The course was designed to prepare trainees for an exam required by commissioners in order to be promoted. The course was offered in Riverside and Sacramento and included four speakers. To reduce reliance on FQPA Priority I insecticides and synthetic pyrethroids in canning peach production, IPM techniques were implemented and demonstrated in late-harvested canning peach orchards in northern San Joaquin Valley of California. Outreach on IPM and biological control was made through on-farm training, informal meetings, seminars, and field days.

Publications

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Impact Statements

Asian cycad scale appears to be under good biological control in many areas of Guam. Statistical analysis of Rhizobius lophanthae predation suggests that the beetle predation on A. yasumatsui does appear to be influenced by height above ground with scales on plants placed at 75cm and 150cm above ground about 38% more likely to be attacked than plants placed directly on the ground.
Spotted knapweed density has been reduced by 95% in some areas of western Montana due to biological control.
Redistribution activities carried out in 2009 have led to the enhancement of biological control agent distributions against 12 weeds throughout Washington. Landowner utilization of chemical and physical management methods has been diminished by 30% in WA because of the proliferation of biocontrol acceptance. Property owners/managers realized an estimated cost savings of $500K in 2009 through the implementation of weed biocontrol.
Careful evaluation and consultation with local stakeholders will result in a better decision on the local appropriateness of a possible classical biological control effort against the erythrina gall wasp and greater support for such a project should it be initiated.
Black scale honeydew in olive orchards is beneficial to both the olive fruit fly and introduced parasitoids, through reduced efficacy of the spinosad bait insecticide GF-120 on olive fruit fly, by providing carbohydrate sources for both olive fruit fly and its parasitoids. Previous studies showed that fruit fly parasitoids do not feed directly on GF-120 in the presence of honeydew because they are attracted to the honeydew and fed on it readily. Thus, any possible effects resulting from GF-120 on the parasitoids may not be through ingestion of spinosad by adult parasitoids.
Quantitative assessment of the impact of introduced Rodolia pumila on Icerya seychellarum on Tau Island will show whether or not the project has succeeded in its aim to suppress I. seychellarum populations there to levels that no longer threaten the traditional food production and aesthetic values supplied by the breadfruit and other trees on the island.
Advances have been made in understanding how to conserve and measure the activity of native natural enemies of several major pests of cotton using life table and molecular techniques.
Evaluation of the lethal and sublethal effects of insecticides and transgenic plants on key natural enemies through both field and laboratory studies will aid the development of pest management strategies that minimize disruption of biological control.
The protein marking immunoassay provides a useful alternative to conventional marking techniques for mark-release-recapture and mark-capture studies. The technique is being used by researchers throughout the world to study various aspects of insect dispersal.
Surveys of more than 40 sites in 2009 suggest that olive psyllid is well established along the coast and inland in Orange and San Diego Counties (CA). In most locations, the infestations did not appear to be damaging to olives. Populations in most of the infested sites remained low from October 2008 - March 2009 and increased over spring, peaking in June. As summer temperatures increased, density rankings decreased in Aug. 2009 and hit a low point in December 2009. Natural enemies were rarely observed with psyllid clusters. However, closer examination this year may detect enemy species.
Adoption of recent biocontrol methods by New Jersey farmers will reduce pesticide use to control European corn borer and minimize exposure to pesticides the citizens of the state.
Reduviidae have been called a neglected group of potential natural enemies among Heteroptera or True Bugs. With our studies, aiming on systematics and biology of Reduviidae, we will provide a foundation for establishing assassin bugs as pest control agents. Data on distribution, biology, and relationships of native species are essential components for this foundation.
A previously unknown parasitoid has been discovered that can be managed (locally) or exported (internationally) to contribute to control of a major insect pest of bananas (Pentalonia nigronervosa).
On greenhouse crops, studies have shown that where predatory mites are released is important for the degree of biological control of the twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae, as is the architecture of the crop plant. Different selected lines of genetically-modified predatoes will perform better than others in controlling twospotted mites, but that performance will be specific to environmental conditions (i.e., prey abundance and distribution). It may be possible to develop more reliable, economical, and efficient augmentative biological control programs using P. persimilis.
Results with A. cucumeris on western flower thrips and tomato spotted wilt virus suggest that growers may be able to use biological control as an alternative to chemical control even on crops that are susceptible to virus infection.
High numbers of mass reared Psyttalia concolor (Namibia) and P. lounsburyi (Kenya) by Israeli cooperators allowed for a good early season start of field releases in California. The first within-season recovery of P. concolor (Namibia) was made at a second site, most likely due to high numbers of this parasitoid released early in the olive growing season.
Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of naturally occurring egg parasitoids against the light brown apple moth (LBAM) in its invaded range may be of considerable value in implementing an augmentative biological control program. It is suggested that inoculative releases in the spring may facilitate a more reliable occurrence of Trichogramma spp. to suppress LBAM populations in the spring, when the densities of this invasive pest undergo considerable increase.
Recovery of Peristenus relictus (=stygicus) for five consecutive years suggests permanent establishment of this beneficial organism in the Monterey Bay for the control of Lygus hesperus, the number one pest of strawberries in this region. A new population of P. relictus collected in Morocco should have a better chance at establishment in the southern San Joaquin Valley than earlier releases due to a better climatic match between this part of California and North Africa.
For the Diaprepes root weevil, citrus leafminer, and the Asian citrus pysllid, the natural enemies (introduced and native) will play an important role in managing these pests. For the Diaprepes root weevil and the citrus leafminer, the potential exists for the natural enemies to lower their densities to levels acceptable to growers. The natural enemies of the Asian citrus psyllid will be important in reducing psyllid densities in areas in which insecticide applications cannot be made.
Utilization of paired monitoring plots at field sites will provide the best information on the impact of released biological control agents. Paired sites are being used to evaluate impact of M. janthinus on Dalmation toadflax and C. bassicorne on yellow starthistle.
The year 2009 is a milestone in the biological control project of Russian knapweed, since first releases of the promising biological control agent J. ivannikovi were made. Initial studies in Wyoming indicate that the impact imposed by this midge on individual shoots is very similar to what was predicted from impact studies.
To reduce reliance on FQPA Priority I insecticides and synthetic pyrethroids in canning peach production, IPM methods were implemented in canning peach orchards in California. Enhancing biocontrol of Oriental Fruit Moth (OFM) was initiated by sunflower plantings along IPM blocks to provide overwintering and breeding habitat for a biocontrol agent. OFM was controlled in mating-disruption blocks and conventionally treated blocks, demonstrating successful on-farm efficacy of mating disruption as a reduced risk alternative to organophosphates and pyrethroids.

Date of Annual Report: 03/10/2011

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 10/25/2010 - 10/26/2010
Period the Report Covers: 10/01/2009 - 09/01/2010

Participants

See summary of minutes.

Brief Summary of Minutes

Minutes Attachment:

Attachment

Accomplishments

Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Several of these surveys are highlighted. Eight surveys of more than 45 sites indicated that olive psyllid is well established in parts of Orange and San Diego Counties. Natural enemies were rarely observed within psyllid clusters. An Orius-like predator was found feeding on the psyllids collected for lab. purposes. Adults and larvae lacewings were collected in California's central valley and coastal region. Specimens from several populations were reared and preserved for morphological study; additional specimens were sent to colleagues for analysis of courtship songs. Surveys were conducted for aquatic insects feeding on Brazilian waterweed in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, and for the presence of eriophyid mites on Salsola species in California. Assassin bugs, (Reduviidae), were surveyed in Southern California with an emphasis on the genera Zelus and Apiomerus. Species of Zelus are native to California and feed on prey such as lygus, caterpillar larvae, and boll weevils. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. Work included looking for biocontrol agents for the following species: olive psylla in Spain and France; European lettuce aphid in Spain; Russian olive and Russian knapweed in Turkey, Central Asia and Iran; Brazilian waterweed in South America; yellow starthistle in Turkey; Russian and scotch thistle, perennial pepperweed, and rush skeletonweed in Italy, Spain, Bulgaria and Turkey; French broom in France and Italy; and white peach scale in Samoa. In most cases, arthropods were sought as natural enemies, however plants diseases and, in one case, a nematode, was identified as a potential biocontrol agent (caused visible blisters and deformations on scotch thistle leaves). Many of these exploratory trips are only partially successful. Species sent to quarantine facilities must survive the trip and reproduce. Subsequent cultures will then be used for non-target host testing and evaluation for potential release. (See Objective No. 4). Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. Systematics studies generate both molecular and morphological data that are essential to distinguishing between biotypes of both pests and natural enemies. These data also provide information about species biogeography, which ultimately helps select the best biological control species. Comparative work continued on the Chrysopidae of the USA and New World. Long-term priorities are on genera that have potential importance to biological control (e.g., Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes, Leucochrysa). Multilocus genotypic variation was determined within and between populations of water primrose-willow species using molecular markers developed from 944 plants sampled among 32 populations and 5 watersheds. Studies on the phylogenetic relationships of Reduviid genera using molecular and morphological information are in progress. The systematics of the Asian Citrus Psyllid, Diaphorina, is largely unknown and investigations focus on a molecular study based on broad sampling of Diaphorina species in South East Asia, the Near East, and South Africa. Population genetic studies are ongoing for beetle species that feed on Russian and scotch thistle. Genetic and morphological studies have been carried out with different ecotypes of the root boring weevil Trichosirocalus spp. and Lixus cardui. A long-term study on the systematics of the Delphacidae was completed. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers were used to confirm systematic identity and to examine genetic divergence among invasive populations of the gall wasp Q. erythrinae from Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, and China. Samples from all invasive populations showed a complete lack of genetic diversity. Molecular findings confirm that a single species is involved in the dramatic, recent range expansion and that introductions may have been associated with population bottlenecks that have reduced genetic diversity in populations sampled. Cales noacki is an imported parasitoid of the Wooly Whitefly on citrus and the Red-Banded Whitefly on avocado. A previously unknown cryptic species has been identified using molecular markers which is highly localized in a citrus grove on the UC-Riverside campus. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. Many non-target studies are underway. Examples follow. Host specificity testing for Haeckliana sperata (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), an egg parasitoid of Diaprepes is ongoing. Initial trials have found this parasitoid to only attack Diaprepes eggs. The rust Cercospora sp. was evaluated and found to not be sufficiently specific to use as a biological control agent for Cape-ivy (Delairea odorata). The mite, Aceria drabae, was collected in Turkey and shipped to Montana for testing against hoarycress. The mite appears to be very host specific and a TAG petition is being drafted for its field release. Non-target host testing is ongoing for enemies against the following weeds: Hawkweed, Russian and scotch thistle, perennial pepperweed, rush skeletonweed, yellow starthistle and saltcedar. The African braconid parasitoid Fopius ceratitivorus was shown to be an inferior intrinsic competitor to the common extant Asian species F. arisanus on young eggs of their common host medflies, so there is little risk of competitive displacement by the new parasitoid. The spiny soldier bug (P. maculiventris) is being tested against a number of species in Guam. It may prove useful against a range of coleopteran and lepidopteran pests of cabbage, but due to its generalist nature may pose a threat to biocontrol agents previously released on Guam, and to threatened butterfly species on Guam, including the nymphalid Hypolimnas octocula which is a candidate for the US Endangered Species List. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Many releases and redistributions of natural enemies were carried out against pests in 2010. Pest species include (but were not limited to): giant reed, rush skeletonweed, Mediterranean sage, purple loosestrife, olive fly, Diaprepes root weevil, Lygus hesperus, vine mealybug, Asian citrus psyllid, tansy ragwort, Russian knapweed, field bindweed, St. Johnswort, Bemisa spp., melon aphid, saltcedar, leafy spurge, yellow starthistle, musk thistle, spotted and diffuse knapweed, Dalmation toadflax, common mullein, poison hemlock, Canada thistle, tansy ragwort, scotchbroom, and giant sensitive weed. Most of these projects required collecting or rearing the natural enemies and releasing them at many sites, followed by evaluating their establishment. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. California studies continued on yellow Starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis and Dalmation Toadflax. A specific effort is being made to document the effect that natural enemies have made on reductions in toadflax, and what effect those reductions may have on the abundance of native wildflowers that are of major importance. No remarkable impact has been documented to date. The introduced saltcedar leafbeetle (Diorhabda elongata) has killed nearly 75% of saltcedar at sites in Nevada and achieved over 90% control across a wide area (100,000s of acres) in Utah. Efficacy of the fly, Hydrellia sp., to reduce biomass of Brazilian waterweed (Egeria densa) was further characterized in Argentina. A quarantine laboratory study compared the life history parameters of the psyllid, Arytinnis hakani, on French broom (Genista monspessulana) plants from the native and invasive regions of origin. Field experiments on the interaction of two biological control agents of yellow starthistle showed that a rust pathogen (Puccinia jaceae var. solstitialis) benefited adult weevils but reduced the impact of weevil larvae. The seedhead fly, Chaetorellia succinea, often emerges in the spring much earlier than the target weed, yellow starthistle, which reduces efficacy of the fly. Research showed that this asynchrony was caused by differences in spring temperature, which vary as a function of topography. Parasitism of the cereal leaf beetle by T. julius in experimental field plots of wheat was increased by spraying with sucrose early in the season when the beetle larvae were first hatching. Binodoxys communis was found to be responsible for low levels of aphid parasitism at three release sites on Kauai. High levels of hyperparasitism and competition with extant primary parasitoids are partially responsible for the low efficacy. In field evaluations of the African predator Eurytoma erythrinae (imported to control the Erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae), all release sites in natural areas showed a significant reduction in gall infestation levels on leaves, petioles, stems, inflorescences and seedpods compared to pre-release infestation levels. Ongoing surveys are periodically conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Rhyzobius lophanthae, a coccinellid, on controlling populations of the Asian cycad scale, Aulocaspis yasumatsui on Cycas micronesica on Guam. Studies have also been conducted to evaluate predations rates of R. lophanthae at different heights above ground in an attempt to understand why there is little apparent recruitment of C. micronesica seedlings into the forest population of trees. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Naturally occurring egg parasitism of the light brown apple moth in California was assessed at several coastal sites using sentinel egg cards. Four species of egg parasites have been found. This is the first record of T. fasciatum occurring in the United States. Breeding success of females in natural populations was compared for two prominent species of ladybird beetles inhabiting Utah alfalfa fields, the introduced Coccinella septempunctata L. and the indigenous C. transversoguttata richardsoni Brown. Females of the introduced species were more successful in producing eggs than were females of the indigenous species, and produced these eggs on average earlier in the spring. Field-based life table studies in Arizona cotton are being conducted to examine the comparative role of natural enemies and plant stress on Bemisia tabaci population dynamics. Results to date demonstrate a key role for arthropod predators and a minor role for plant stress. Insect-specific PCR assays have been developed that detect predation events on key members of the cotton, alfalfa, and lesquerella arthropod assemblages that include pests (whitefly, lygus) and natural enemies (collops, big-eyed bug, etc.). These assays are being used to simultaneously probe the guts of individual predators for the presence of all types of prey. These data will help to unveil the complex feeding interactions exhibited by the generalist predator complex. Evaluations have continued on the influence of food deprivation during larval development on native lady beetle species that commonly feed on small grain aphids in Kansas. Recent studies showed that increasing the level of food deprivation on Coleomegilla maculata resulted in correspondingly longer developmental times, shorter preoviposition periods, and smaller-sized adult females. Also, different-sized beetles exhibited dissimilar expressions of reproductive output, suggesting possible reproductive trade-offs related to size. Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for whitefly control. Results confirmed the selectivity of spirotetramat, rynaxypyr and cyazypyr for whitefly; natural enemies were largely unaffected. A study was initiated to examine a novel protein prey marking method that can be used to differentiate active predation from scavenging events on whitefly by various members of the cotton predator assemblage. Living and dead (cadaver) cohorts of whiteflies were each marked with a unique protein and then fed to various members of the cotton predator community. In turn, the gut contents of each predator was probed by protein-specific ELISAs to differentiate between active and carrion predation events. Ultimately this method will be used to identify the propensity that generalist predators have for feeding on living versus dead prey items. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for Lygus bug control in cotton. The selectivity of flonicamid and metaflumizone for Lygus bugs were confirmed; natural enemies were largely unaffected. Glassy winged sharpshooter (GWSS)-specific ELISA and PCR assays have been developed that detect predation events on the various life stages of GWSS. These assays are being used to probe the guts of individual predators of GWSS collected over a two year period from a citrus field that was exposed to three different irrigation regimes. These data will help to unveil the complex feeding interactions exhibited by the generalist predator complex on GWSS exposed to normal (100%) and deficit (60 and 80%) irrigation treatments. In a lab study, aphids previously parasitized by the Cecidomyid, Endaphis fugitiva were exposed to increased mortality risks. Both simulated and actual predator attacks against aphid hosts induced early emergence of the parasitoid larvae, allowing enough time for the larvae to avoid direct predation. Predator-induced emergence produced significantly smaller parasitoid larvae than controls, but no effect on Endaphis adult size was found. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence of induced emergence ("heterokairy") in an insect parasitoid. Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. To further reduce reliance on pyrethroids in late-season peaches, enhancement of biological control of the Oriental Fruit Moth (OFM) was initiated through habitat management by plantings of sunflowers along IPM blocks to provide overwintering and breeding habitat for a biological control agent. OFM was effectively controlled in both mating-disruption demonstration blocks and in conventionally treated blocks, demonstrating successful on-farm efficacy of mating disruption as a reduced risk alternative to organophosphates and pyrethroids. No differences in OFM populations were detected in IPM blocks with and without sunflower during the second year of the demonstration, primarily because OFM populations were low in all IPM blocks. Preliminary field studies in 2009 assessed the efficacy of methyl salicylate (MeSA - Pred-Alure) as an attractant for natural enemies in cotton. MeSA failed to attract predators at a dose of 225 lures/ha compared with un-baited control plots. Headspace volatile collections indicated lure output for ca. 60 days. Studies in 2010 used higher lure doses and placed control and baited plots adjacent to a large alfalfa field to determine proof of concept. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. Research on Reduviids is focusing on natural history data (reproduction, predation), comparative morphological evaluation of raptorial glands in Zelus spp., and functional and comparative morphology of predation and maternal care in Apiomerus. Research continued towards the long-term goal of finding more efficient and effective ways to use the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, as an augmentative biological control agent of the twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae, on greenhouse vegetable and floricultural crops. Because this predator is tiny, flightless, and must forage in diverse complex crop landscapes in which prey are patchily-distributed, testing has focused on lines artificially selected to enhance various foraging traits, including consumption rate and tendency for dispersal. In 2010 we evaluated the high-consumption and high-dispersal lines of P. persimilis against our colony (unselected control) on whole 6-leafed cucumber plants in which twospotted spider mites were distributed on only the basal leaf or on all six leaves. Results showed that predators from the high-consumption line consumed more prey on the basal leaf on which they were placed than on the other five leaves; whereas high-dispersal predators foraged more uniformly, consuming equal prey on the basal and upper 5 leaves. Objective 11. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Rearing procedures are being developed and refined for Light Brown Apple Moth, Epiphyas postvittana. Extant species of Trichogramma egg parasitoids are under evaluation to determine their effectiveness in augmentation biological control of the light brown apple moth. Interest focuses on the combined effects of egg parasitoids and sterile insect technology (SIT) using sterile light brown apple moths. Research in large field cages (12' x 24') was initiated in late summer of 2010. Results were favorable for both parasitism (using T. platneri) and SIT. Mass rearing methodology for Jaapiella ivannikova is being developed in the New Mexico State University High Containment Insect Facility. Techniques for field releases will be developed in 2011including the number of galls in the initial release, cage requirements to prevent dispersal, control of predators etc. Rearing methods have been further developed for rearing and aerial release of the arundo wasp. Objective 12. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. Results have been reported under other objectives. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control. Objective 13. Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents. Long-term censusing of lady beetle species assemblages occurring in alfalfa fields of Utah was continued to evaluate effects of the introduction and establishment of the exotic lady beetle, Coccinella septempunctata, on native coccinellids. Sampling was completed to evaluate the impact of the introductions of Rodolia spp. predators to the Manu'a Islands to control the exotic Seychelles scale, Icerya seychellarum. Heavy outbreaks of Seychelles scale on breadfruit and other trees had occurred in the Manu'a Islands (Ofu, Olosega, and Ta'u) since the mid-1990s, when it was accidentally introduced, apparently from populations long established on Tutuila Island. In response, Rodolia limbata from Australia was introduced to Ofu Island in 1999. After rearing in the laboratory and screening for diseases and parasitoids, beetles from this Tutuila population were introduced to Ta'u Island in 2008. In 2010, another evaluation was completed which showed that R. pumila had spread throughout Ta'u Island and that I. seychellarum densities were now reduced to very low levels on Ta'u. Residents remarked that breadfruit tree leaves which had for years been covered by masses of white wax-covered scale insects on the undersides and heavy black sooty mold on the upper sides were now a healthy green color and size and quantity of fruit production had also rebounded. Objective 14. Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. Outreach on IPM and biological control in canning peach orchards was made through on-farm training, informal meetings, seminars, and field days. Eleven seminars or presentations on the biology, damage, and biological control of Diaprepes root weevil, Asian citrus psyllid, and vine mealybug were given to various grower, industry, and scientific groups. A training course on pest control, including biological control, was offered to county staff. The course was designed to prepare trainees for an exam required by commissioners in order to be promoted. The course was offered in Riverside and Sacramento and included four speakers. Two presentations were given to two different organizations consisting of state weed managers on the ongoing biological program for Russian knapweed using J. ivannikovi in Wyoming. Two informational meetings were conducted in New Mexico counties currently benefiting from Diorhabda biocontrol for saltcedar. Outreach activities were conducted with medical students at the Univ. of Texas, San Antonio and Harlingen Health Science Center. Students taking a summer border environmental studies course attended lectures on the biological control program for Arundo donax in the Rio Grande Basin. In March 2010, approximately 30 quarantine personnel on Guam, the CNMI, the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were trained in the importance of natural enemies in regulating populations of invasive insect pests in Micronesia, with special recognition of the potential impact of Hemiptera and ants if not intercepted or detected at or shortly after introduction to the islands. Regulations for importing natural enemies and prohibiting the entry of potential pests were discussed, along with methods for inspection and enforcement of regulations.

Publications

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Impact Statements

Biological control of the Erythrina gall wasp appears to have successfully prevented the extinction of the native Erythrina sandwicensis, a keystone species in Hawaiis few remaining threatened lowland forest ecosystems.
Redistribution activities carried out in 2010 have led to the enhancement of biological control agent distributions against 12 noxious weeds throughout Washington.
Regional re-distribution of beneficial insects on rush skeletonweed, giant reed, Mediterranean sage, and purple loosestrife have been the first critical steps in the implementation of an area-wide biological control program against these noxious weeds.
Landowner utilization of chemical and physical management methods has been diminished by >30% in WA because of the proliferation of biocontrol acceptance.
Paired sites are being used to evaluate impact of M. janthinus on Dalmation toadflax and at proposed C. bassicorne release sites on yellow starthistle. These are providing the best information on the impact of released biological control agents.
Several biological control options are being considered for the light brown apple moth in California. The option of augmentative releases of Trichogramma egg parasitoids (species naturally occurring in California) and foreign exploration for natural enemies in southern Australia will be investigated. In cooperation with UC Berkeley, pre-release monitoring of numerous potential release sites of light brown apple moth parasitoids (when permits become available) will be performed.
Field release and evaluation of Aprostocetus vaquitarum, an egg parasitoid of the Diaprepes root weevil, will continue in San Diego County. Host specificity testing, release and evaluation of two additional parasitoid species, Fidiobia sp. and Haeckliana sperata, are also planned.
The citrus leafminer has continued to spread throughout all of the citrus growing areas of California. Host specificity testing has started for Citrostichus phyllocnistis, a parasitoid of the citrus leafminer. If approved for release, this parasitoid would be used by growers and homeowners to reduce densities of citrus leafminer.
Host-specificity tests with the gall-forming weevil Ceutorhynchus cardariae, are completed. Results of host-specificity tests conducted so far with the seed feeding weevil C. turbatus show that it is the most specific agent investigated. Because it only reduces seed output of L. draba, it will not contribute to the control of existing stands, but rather reduce the spread of L. draba.
Russian olive has become a declared noxious weed in five states of USA, and this number is likely to increase in the near future. However, this tree is subject to conflicting interests, because it was introduced as a horticultural plant, for hedgerows, erosion control and reclamation purposes and may therefore provide some benefits where it was planted. The primary goal of the initial phase of this biological control project is to slow down the spread of Russian olive in semi-natural and natural areas by introducing biological control agents that reduce the reproductive output of but do not kill Russian olive trees. Initial studies indicate that the mite Aceria angustifoliae is very specific and can reduce seed production on infested branches by approximately 50%. It is expected that the pre-releases studies with this biocontrol candidate will be completed in approximately 3 years.
Mecinus heydeni appears to be promising for biological control of yellow toadflax. Together with R. brondelii, M. laeviceps and Mecinus sp. n. from L. dalmatica ssp. macedonica could contribute to the control of Dalmatian toadflax.
Russian knapweed infests more that 1,500 million acres in the U.S., and is particularly abundant in western states. Economic impacts include reduced forage production, lost opportunity for sale of forage from infested sites, and animal poisoning. Ecological impacts include lower plant biodiversity and reduced quality of wildlife habitat. Releases of the new biological control agent, J. ivannikovi, are expected to reduce Russian knapweed biomass at existing infestations, as well as reduce the infestation of new sites via reduced seed production.
Documentation of establishment of J. ivannikovi populations has promoted interest in using the biological control agent by land-owners and weed managers.
Data is being generated on distribution, biology, and relationships of native Reduviidae. Reduviidae have been referred to as a neglected group of potential natural enemies among Heteroptera or True Bugs. With our studies, aiming on systematics and biology of Reduviidae, a foundation for establishing assassin bugs as pest control agents is underway.
Established agents, such as Longitarsus jacobaeae, have significantly decreased tansy ragwort density by 75-97% at some sites in Montana.
Studies showed that Delphacid vectors of plant viruses are evolutionary distant within the Delphacini, suggesting that many or all delphacid species, at least within the Delphacini, have the capacity to vector plant diseases.
A searchable bibliography of 5,500 references on planthoppers between 1940 and the present is now available online at http://delphacid.anr.udel.edu/delpha/list_delph.
The development of online resources for North American delphacids continues with a now completed interactive morphology guide and continued development of Lucid3 species keys.
Advances were made in understanding how to conserve and measure the activity of native natural enemies of several major pests of cotton using life table and molecular techniques.
Evaluation of the lethal and sub-lethal effects of insecticides and transgenic plants on key natural enemies through both field and laboratory studies will aid the development of pest management strategies that minimize disruption of biological control.
We continue to advance methods for using predator gut content ELISA and PCR assays to qualify the impact of indigenous predators. New molecular methods are being developed that will enable us to quantify the predation rates of entire arthropod assemblages on key pests.
The protein marking immunoassay provides a useful alternative to conventional marking techniques for mark-release-recapture and mark-capture studies. The technique is being used by researchers throughout the world to study various aspects of insect dispersal.
Intensive deployment of Mecinus janthinus has retarded Dalmatian toadflax invasiveness, facilitated the restoration of many previously infested sites for animal foraging, and led to the re-establishment of desired native plant species.
New populations of Bangasternus fausti and Aceria malherbae were discovered and will be used as insectary sites for redistribution of the bioagents.
Property owners/managers in the Northwest have realized an estimated cost savings of $500K in 2010 through the implementation of weed biocontrol during these trying economic times.
Cooperative linkages were maintained or established with AES, USDA-ARS, US BLM, USFS, USNPS, USFWS, and multiple state agencies charged with noxious weed management in the western United States.
Densities of Seychelles scales on breadfruits on Ofu and Olosega Islands were reduced to 0.01% and those on Ta‘u Island were reduced to 0.03% of their levels before the introductions of the predatory beetles. Residents described dramatic changes in the appearance and yields of their breadfruit trees. For many years the trees‘ leaves had been covered with the white wax-covered scale insects on the lower surfaces and the black sooty mold growing on the scales‘ honeydew exudate on the leaves‘ upper surfaces. After the introductions, residents said the leaves appeared clean and a healthy green color and quantities and size of breadfruits produced had increased. Breadfruits are one of the most abundant trees in the villages of the Manu‘a Islands, and their fruits are an important component of the traditional Samoan diet. The project both helped secure an important food resource and greatly improved the aesthetic appearance of the villages.
To further reduce reliance on pyrethroids in late-season peaches, enhancement of biological control of the Oriental Fruit Moth was initiated through habitat management by plantings of sunflowers along IPM blocks to provide overwintering and breeding habitat for a biological control agent.

Date of Annual Report: 01/09/2012

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 10/11/2011 - 10/13/2011
Period the Report Covers: 10/01/2010 - 09/01/2011

Participants

Bean, Dan - Colorado Department of Agriculture;
Daane, Kent - University of California;
Collier, Tim - University of Wyoming;
Delaney, Kevin - USDA-ARS NPARL;
Evans, Edward (Ted) - Utah State University;
Fettig, Christa - Colorado State University;
Hansen, Rich - USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST;
Hardin, Janet - Colorado State University;
Hinz, Hariet - CABI Europe-Switzerland (via computer);
Holtzer, Tom - Colorado State University;
Hufbauer, Ruth - Colorado State University;
Johnson, Marshall - University of California, Riverside;
Jones, Walker - USDA ARS, Stoneville, MS;
Kumschick, Sabrina - Colorado State University;
LeBeck, Lynn - Assoc. Natural Biocontrol Producers;
Luck, Robert - University of California, Riverside;
Miller, Ross - University of Guam;
Myers, Kathleen - University of Wyoming;
Naranjo, Steve - USDA ARS;
Norton, Andrew - Colorado State University;
Ode, Paul - Colorado State University;
Pitcairn, Michael - California Dept. Food & Agriculture;
Rand, Tatyana - USDA ARS NPARL;
Smith, Lincoln - USDA ARS;
Seastedt, Tim - University of Colorado;
Stouthamer, Richard - University of California, Riverside;
Szucs, Mariana - Colorado State University;
Thompson, David - New Mexico State University;
Usnick, Shadara - USDA APHIS;
Webber, Nancy - Colorado State University;
Wilbur, Hannah - Colorado State University;
Williams, Wyatt - Colorado State University;
Woods, Dale - California Dept. Food & Agriculture;
Wright, Mark - University of Hawaii;

Brief Summary of Minutes

Minutes Attachment:

Attachment

Accomplishments

Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Several of these surveys are highlighted. Surveys of natural enemies of Icerya seychellarum and Aspidiotus destructor in the Manu'a Islands were completed. Visits to the islands this year confirmed that populations of I. seychellarum continue to be maintained at very low levels by the introduced lady beetles Rodolia limbata and R. pumila. Surveys were conducted on papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) and Erythrina gall wasp (Quadrastichus erythrinae) for indigenous natural enemies in Hawaii. None were detected. To facilitate surveys of natural enemies in the USA, taxonomic materials were developed (keys, descriptions, illustrations, images) for identifying chrysopids. Adult and larval specimens were collected, especially in California's central valley and coastal region. Specimens from several populations were reared and preserved for morphological study. Surveys of more than 50 sites indicated that olive psyllid is well established in parts of Orange and San Diego Counties, however it is now found in 3 additional CA counties. Natural enemies were rarely observed within psyllid clusters. An Orius-like predator was found feeding on the psyllids collected for lab. purposes. Assassin bugs, were surveyed in Southern California with an emphasis on the genera Zelus and Apiomerus. Other Zelus of interest as natural enemies include native species of Pselliopus, Sinea and, most importantly, Apiomerus. Species of Zelus are native to California and feed on prey such as lygus, caterpillar larvae, and boll weevils. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. Field research on the arundo scale, R. donacis was completed in Spain. Field experiments using both mechanical and chemical exclusion have shown that A. donax without arundo scale grows significantly larger and faster. Several cooperative projects with colleagues in Argentina and Brazil were continued on the diversity, seasonal occurrence, comparative biology, and abundance of chrysopids in orchards. A large number of species were collected; their taxonomy and developmental requirements being determined. An endemic complex of 20 parasitoid speices provides a year round supply of natural enemies that suppress a complex of citrus leaf and peelminers more effectively that the exotic A. citricola in CA. Work in 2011 also included looking for biocontrol agents for the following species: olive psylla in Spain and France; European lettuce aphid in Spain; Russian olive and Russian knapweed in Turkey, Central Asia and Iran; Brazilian waterweed in South America; yellow starthistle in Turkey; Russian and scotch thistle, perennial pepperweed, and rush skeletonweed in Italy, Spain, Bulgaria and Turkey; French broom in France and Italy; and white peach scale in Samoa. In most cases, arthropods were sought as natural enemies, however plants diseases are also identified as potential biocontrol agents (caused visible blisters and deformations on scotch thistle leaves). Species sent to quarantine facilities must survive the trip and reproduce. Subsequent cultures will then be used for non-target host testing and evaluation for potential release. Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. Systematics studies generate both molecular and morphological data that are essential to distinguishing between biotypes of both pests and natural enemies. These data also provide information about species biogeography, which ultimately helps select the best biological control species. Studies on the phylogenetic relationships of Apiomerus using molecular and morphological information are in progress. Efforts focus placements of these genera within the tribes Apiomerini and Harpactorini and on species-level phylogenies within these genera. Systematics of the Asian Citrus Psyllid, the vector of Citrus Greening Disease, and its relatives within the genus Diaphorina have been on-going. Systematics of Diaphorina is largely unknown and investigations focus on a molecular study based on broad sampling of Diaphorina species in South East Asia, the Near East, and South Africa. Molecular phylogeny indicates that the genus Diaphorina is monophyletic and that an association with Rutaceae (citrus and allies) has occurred more than once within the genus. Scientists in Argentina are helping W2185 researchers on with studies on parasites of the imported fire ant (Solenopsis) in South America and of the Little Red Fire Ant (Wasmannia) in the Caribbean and Central America. Studies include the molecular characterization of the different species using ribosomal markers. Studies funded through foreign exploration funds have focused on the ecology and characterization of Orasema minutissima, which is attacking Wasmannia in Dominica and Costa Rica. This latter species is a promising control agent for invasive populations of the LRF in the Pacific. A project is underway to study the species of Coccophaginae, a diverse group of parasitoids attacking whiteflies and armored scales. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. Many non-target studies are underway. Examples follow: Laboratory host range assessment of a predatory pentatomid, Podisus maculiventris is being studied for field release on Guam. Predation by Podisus maculiventris was evaluated with Erionota thrax (Lepidoptera; Hesperidae), Pericyma cruegeri, Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), Papilio polytes, and Eudocima phalonia. Both free-choice and no-choice experiments indicated that the P. maculiventris attacked and consumed all the larvae of the 5 species included in the tests. Although larvae died at different intervals, most of them were dead within 24-120 h of the introduction of the predatory species. Since the P. maculiventris is polyphagous in nature and the present findings indicate that these predators will feed on the introduced biocontrol moth, P. pseudoinsulata, it is recommended not to take the predators out of the quarantine laboratory for the field release on Guam. Additionally, P. maculiventris will feed on some native species as they become available. Two agents, the arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana and the arundo scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis have been permitted for release. Host specificity testing of the crown moth Oporopsamma wertheimsteini was conducted at the MSU quarantine facility in 2011. No-choice tests were performed on 32 plant species, plus 4 cultivars and 3 biotypes of rush skeletonweed. A shipment of rush skeletonweed roots infested with the moth was received from Armenia in 2011; collected by local cooperators in association with the Russian Biocontrol Group. Over 160 adults emerged and laid eggs; which are being held in cold storage. Sphenoptera foveola was also collected by the Russian Biocontrol Group from sites located in Kazakhstan and then transported to field plots in Armenia to determine the utilization of North American Chondrilla juncea. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Many releases and redistributions of natural enemies were carried out against pests in 2011. Well over 100,000 individual natural enemies were released or redistributed. Pest species include (but were not limited to): giant reed, rush skeletonweed, Mediterranean sage, purple loosestrife, olive fly, Diaprepes root weevil, Lygus hesperus, vine mealybug, Asian citrus psyllid, tansy ragwort, Russian knapweed, field bindweed, St. Johnswort, Bemisa spp., melon aphid, saltcedar, leafy spurge, yellow starthistle, musk thistle, spotted and diffuse knapweed, Dalmation toadflax, common mullein, poison hemlock, Canada thistle, tansy ragwort, scotchbroom, and giant sensitive weed. Most of these projects required collecting or rearing the natural enemies and releasing them at many sites, followed by evaluating their establishment. Specific examples follow: A permit from USDA-APHIS was obtained during to import the predatory mite Neoseiulus californicus for the control of plant feeding mites on vegetable crops from the continental United States. 5000 predatory mites were released at various locations on Guam in January 2011. Post release monitoring will be conducted to determine the establishment of the predatory mites. Eurytoma erythrinae and Anagrus loekii, parasitoids of Erythrina gall wasp (Quadrastictus erythrinae) have been distributed and established state-wide in Hawaii. A relatively new biological control agent for Russian knapweed, Acroptilon repens, was permitted for release in the U.S. in 2009. This insect, Jaapiella ivannikovi, is a cecidomyiid gall midge from central Asia. Releases were made at three new sites in the project area (Wyoming). No galls were observed later in the summer at these sites, suggesting a failure of the agent to establish. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. The impact of Cecidochares connexa on Chromolaena odorata in Guam was evaluated. To assess the impact of this gall fly on this weed, eight field sites in northern, central and southern Guam, each with well-established stands of C. odorata, were assessed in 2011. Measurements of various growth parameters of C. odorata indicated steady decline in the number of stems and leaves, and height of plants at the sites from October 2009 to September 2010. This gives a snapshot picture of the decline of C. odorata on Guam, likely due to the introduced natural enemies. A study is identifying parasitoids for a survey of Citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) in southern California and developing a pictorial identification key to species. The impact and effectiveness of seed-feeding insects on squarrose knapweed was evaluated by sampling throughout the west desert of Utah where the weed is widely established. The weevil was found to infest 55-80% of knapweed seedheads across areas of heavy weed infestation, while the formerly abundant fly continues to infest small percentages (up to 10%) at many sites as well. Shared use by the two biocontrol agents of individual knapweed sites, and of individual seedheads within sites, was investigated. Rates of parasitism of the cereal leaf beetle (Oulema melanopus) by the parasitoid Tetrastichus julius were determined by sampling weekly throughout the growing season in fields of small grains (barley, wheat, and oats) in northern Utah. Sampling emphasis was placed on comparing rates of parasitism of the beetle between grain fields that had been planted with small grains also during the previous growing season and fields that were newly planted with grains. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Research focused on understanding predatory natural enemies associated with Lygus species in California cotton. The dispersal abilities of several generalist predators (Geocoris spp., Nabis spp., Hippodamia convergens, and Chrysoperla spp.) and Lygus were quantified using a large-scale mark-capture study. Lygus does not appear to escape from its predators by out-dispersing them. New statistical methods were developed to be used with protein mark-capture data to study long-distance movement by arthropods in an agricultural landscape. The diets of ladybird beetles in alfalfa fields were determined by using the contents of frass as diagnostic indicators. Laboratory experiments demonstrated that ladybird beetle consumption of the two major insect pests in Utah alfalfa fields, alfalfa weevil larvae and pea aphids, as well as consumption of other ladybird beetles, could be detected readily from prey fragments in frass. Field studies revealed that consumption by ladybird beetles of alfalfa weevil larvae as well as aphids occurred frequently in spring alfalfa. To understand the effects of seasonal aphid availability on alternative prey use, an order-specific monoclonal antibody was used to examine the frequency of dipteran predation by these important natural enemies. Over 400 larvae were hand-collected from alfalfa and, in parallel, arthropod abundance was recorded. Harmonia axyridis and Coccinella septempunctata larvae were abundant early in the season when aphid populations were at their peak and Coleomegilla maculata larvae were collected later in the season when potato leafhoppers were abundant in the alfalfa. A new Hawaii record for an unintentionally introduced egg parasitoid, Trichogramma achaeae, was reported. Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Studies were conducted on the extent to which biological control of spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) and aphids (Aphis gossypii) in California cotton is disrupted by cannibalism or intraguild predation. Field experiments demonstrated that cannibalism in Geocoris pallens populations appear to be the key constraint limiting the ability of this predator to respond numerically to localized outbreaks of spider mite or aphid prey. A series of controlled laboratory studies have been initiated to measure potential impacts of transgenic Bt crops on a range of natural enemy species. Protocols involve tri-trophic exposure scenarios in which the prey or host are fed on Bt crops and then exposed to predators or parasitoids. To control for prey or host quality mediated effects, Bt resistance and susceptible prey and hosts are being employed. Researchers continued to survey invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands during 2011. This activity is part of an ongoing USDA-APHIS funded project on the surveillance of Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and other Mariana Islands. A study related to this project describes the attendance behavior of Guam's invasive ants towards aphids, scales and mealybugs commonly encountered in the Marianas and the effects this might have on biological control agents released in the islands. The effects of pesticides on the parasitoid (Anagrus loekii) of papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) were investigated. Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. Large plot field studies were initiated in 2011 to develop baseline data for incorporating the density and activity of natural enemies into action thresholds for managing Bemisia tabaci in cotton. Different rates of a known broad-spectrum insecticide were used to manipulate predator/prey ratios and attempt to determine levels of these ratios needed to suppress pest populations or require the need for remedial insecticidal control. Protein mark-capture studies are being conducted to assess the movement of lygus bugs and associated natural enemies between alfalfa strips planted within an organic strawberry field. Studies indicated that Lygus and several species of predators remain in the alfalfa trap crop and do not disperse far into the adjacent strawberries. Protein mark-capture studies were initiated to examine the movement of spotted winged Drosophila (SWD) and associated natural enemies between wild Himalayan blackberry (HB) and soft fruit crops (berries, grapes, and stone fruits) in wild land areas of the Pacific Northwest. A laboratory study showed that protein markers are very effective SWD markers. These markers are currently being used to study SWD movement between native vegetation and small fruit crops. The effects of cover cropping and intercropping corn with sun hemp, buckwheat, and cowpea on parasitism of Helicoverpa zea by Trichogrammatidae is being investigated. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. To investigate predation strategies and natural history of species of the genus Zelus, researchers have established lab cultures of several species of Zelus. They have observed and videotaped reproductive and predation behaviors of Z. renardii and Z. tetracanthus. Researchers (in collaboration with colleagues in Mexico and Brazil) continue to evaluate the potential of chrysopids for mass-rearing and release in the U.S.A. and Latin America. Emphasis in Mexico is on Ceraeochrysa species against homopteran pests of citrus; Brazil focuses on Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes and Leucochrysa species against homopteran pests of fruit and vegetable crops. A critical review was completed covering the nutrition and feeding behavior of chrysopids, especially as they relate to pest management. Egg parasitism by Trissolcus basalis in architecturally varied habitats and observations on parasitism in macadamia nut orchards and other habitats following augmentative release is also being studied. Genetic effects of augmentative introductions of Tephritid parasitoids using Diachasmimorpha tryoni as the study organism have been analyzed. Molecular tools and fitness measurements have predicted the potential effects of captive colony outbreeding during augmentative release using the parasitoid, Diachasmimorpha tryoni. Research continued towards the long-term goal of finding more efficient and effective ways to use the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, as an augmentative biological control agent of the twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae, on greenhouse vegetable and floricultural crops. Because this predator is tiny, flightless, and must forage in diverse complex crop landscapes in which prey are patchily-distributed, testing has focused on lines artificially selected to enhance various foraging traits, including consumption rate and tendency for dispersal. Objective 11. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Work has continued with Trichogramma papilionis for augmentative release into corn fields, with and without cover crops, specifically sunn hemp, to increase parasitism of Helicoverpa zea eggs. In addition, rearing procedures continue to be developed and refined for Light Brown Apple Moth, Epiphyas postvittana. Extant species of Trichogramma egg parasitoids are under evaluation to determine their effectiveness in augmentation biological control of the light brown apple moth. Interest focuses on the combined effects of egg parasitoids and sterile insect technology (SIT) using sterile light brown apple moths. Research in large field cages (12' x 24') was initiated. Results were favorable for both parasitism (using T. platneri) and SIT. Objective 12. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. Results have been reported under other objectives. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control. Objective 13. Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents. Research was undertaken to examine the role of detrital subsidies in strawberry crops to promote biological control of exotic and native mollusks. Detrital inputs were compared to traditional bare ground plantings to test the hypothesis that (1) native mollusks would be consumed in greater frequency than non-native species, and (2) levels of predation would be greater in crops that were not treated with detrital subsidies since their application can increase habitat complexity and biodiversity of the prey community, potentially disrupting pest predation. Diagnostic molecular gut-content analysis was used to examine the strength of trophic pathways between a community of carabid beetles and two slug species, the exotic Deroceras reticulatum and native Deroceras laeve, in strawberry agroecosystems. Although slug populations were too low to allow between-treatment comparison, the interaction pathways determined were of significant value in mitigating the effect of slug damage in strawberry agroecosystems and conservation management tactics should therefore focus on those approaches that will promote the diversity of carabids early in the season and prior to fruiting of the crop. The population dynamics of web-building spiders were examined to compare phenological patterns in relation to crop cycles among species in an alfalfa agroecosystem using quadrat-based sampling and time-series analysis. Three common species of web-building spiders had generation times similar to the duration of a crop cycle (31 to 44 days), with peak abundances of adult spiders occurring at 15 to 18 days after harvest. The timing of these peaks corresponds with the critical early phase of the pest population cycle, during which natural enemies can have the maximum impact on pest populations, suggesting that these spiders are capable of contributing to pest suppression as part of an assemblage of natural enemies. Objective 14. Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. A series of brief one-page Extension Circulars have been developed to highlight the identification, biology and biological control potential of some of the more common arthropod predators in the cotton system (spiders, big-eyed bugs, assassin bugs, Collops beetles). A circular was developed to stress the importance of proper sampling and choice of insecticides that allow these key natural enemies to function in the cotton system. Circulars were distributed widely to growers, pest control advisor, county extension personnel and other industry representatives. Approximately 35 quarantine personnel on Guam, the CNMI, the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were trained in the importance of natural enemies regulating populations of invasive pests in Micronesia, with special recognition of the potential impact of Hemiptera and ants if not intercepted or detected. Regulations for importing natural enemies and prohibiting the entry of potential pests were discussed, along with methods for inspection and enforcement of regulations. This activity was the 9th of its kind hosted by the University of Guam and sponsored jointly by the Secretariat of the Pacific Commission, the Guam Department of Agriculture and USDA-APHIS. A presentation was given to state weed managers on the ongoing biological program for Russian knapweed using J. ivannikovi in Wyoming.

Publications

Publications Attachment:

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Impact Statements

Conservation of natural enemies is a key component in cotton management systems and research has provided methods for quantifying the impact of biological control and developing IPM systems that maximize the effects of natural enemies in pest population control and regulation. An IPM program founded on natural enemy conservation has reduced insecticide use in Arizona cotton over 90% saving producers over $220M in the last 15 years.
Evaluation of the lethal and sublethal effects of insecticides and transgenic plants on key natural enemies through both field and laboratory studies have aided the development of pest management strategies that minimize disruption of biological control.
Protein marking immunoassays provide a useful alternative to conventional marking techniques for mark-release-recapture and mark-capture studies. The technique is being used by researchers throughout the world to study various aspects of insect dispersal.
Research utilizing molecular tools to study foraging behavior of generalist predators has enhanced our understanding of the mechanisms of foraging and the role of alternative prey biodiversity in biol control. Ultimately our ability to discern the strength of all trophic linkages in agric food webs, particularly those with alternative prey and intraguild predators that potentially disrupt levels of biol control, will contribute to identifying the role of indigenous natural enemies in mgnt of pest species.
Study of dispersal and landscape scale movement and distribution of pests and their natural enemies is enabling even more comprehensive pest management systems that move beyond the boundaries of single fields and farms.
We continue to advance methods for using predator gut assays to quantify and qualify the impact of indigenous predators. New molecular methods are being developed that will enable us to quantify the predation rates of entire arthropod assemblages on key pests and to study insect cannibalism and scavenging.
Work on coconut rhinoceros beetle on Guam has revealed that there may be genetic differences in beetles on Guam, or in the virulence of fungal strains imported from New Zealand. This finding is helping researchers isolate an effective control pathogen.
Research has shown that citrus leafminer parasitoids are able to reduce the density of the peelminer and it is more effective than a pesticide application. Pesticide applications are more detrimental than a few mined fruit.
Work on Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) and the gall fly, Cecidochares connexa (Diptera: Tephritidae) suggests that the imported biological control agent may be suppressing reproduction and growth in Chromolaena odorata on Guam and elsewhere in Micronesia.
Ongoing ant surveillance surveys indicate that Lepisiota fraunfeldii populations at the Guam international airport have likely been eradicated.
The 2 coccinellid species introduced to the Manua Islands to control Icerya seychellarum have continued to provide near complete control of this pest on breadfruits, safeguarding a traditional staple food crop and an important tree component of the village landscape.
Reduviidae have been referred to as a neglected group of potential natural enemies among Heteroptera or True Bugs. Studies, aiming on systematics and biology of Reduviidae, will provide a foundation for establishing assassin bugs as pest control agents. Data on distribution, biology, and relationships of native species are essential components for this foundation.
Biological control projects have removed the need for insecticide applications on papaya, hibiscus and plumeria for control of papaya mealybug.
Systematics & comparative biol are key factors in the development of predictable and reliable biol control proc. Studies have focused on aspects of chrysopid systematics and biol that are of particular importance to agric. Development of illustrated descriptions and keys for use in identifying specimens continues. In addition to agriculture, the groups being studied have potential value in the biological control of pests in the forests, parks and gardens.
Research is identifying new potential Chalcidoidea biological control agents for use against pestiferous leafminers on citrus, whitefly on citrus, aphids on wheat and other crops, and for wasps attacking pestiferous ants. New research on cryptic species complexes (morphologically identical but reproductively and biologically distinct species) using molecular markers has tremendous potential for the identification of new biological control agents.
Releases of the new biological control agent, J. ivannikovi, are expected to reduce Russian knapweed biomass at existing infestations, as well as reduce the infestation of new sites via reduced seed production. Reduction in the establishment of new Russian knapweed infestations will reduce the costs of identifying, traveling to, and eradicating small, new patches of Russian knapweed. Releases of these agents are also expected to have positive effects on desirable and native vegetation.
Findings are contributing to evaluation and enhancement of the effectiveness of biological control agents introduced against weeds (e.g., seed-feeding and root-boring insects as biocontrol agents of squarrose knapweed) and insect pests (e.g., Tetrastichus julius as a parasitoid of the cereal leaf beetle, and Coccinella septempunctata and native North American lady beetles as predators of aphids and co-occurring pests such as the alfalfa weevil and cereal leaf beetle).
Redistribution activities carried out in 2011 have led to the enhancement of biological control agent distributions against 12 noxious weeds throughout Washington.
Intensive deployment of Mecinus janthinus has retarded Dalmatian toadflax invasiveness, facilitated the restoration of many previously infested sites for animal foraging, and led to the re-establishment of desired native plant species.
New populations of Bangasternus fausti and Aceria malherbae have been discovered and are being used as insectary sites for further redistribution of these bioagents in WA.
Landowner utilization of chemical and physical management methods has been diminished by over 30% in WA because of the proliferation of biocontrol adoption.
Property owners/managers realized an estimated cost savings of $250K in 2011 brought about by the implementation of weed biocontrol during these challenging economic times.
New agents are being investigated or released for the biological control of Russian knapweed, hoarycress, invasive hawkweeds, and rush skeletonweed. In addition Montana is supporting efforts to screen agents at CABI Europe for ox-eye daisy and common tansy. Target weeds selected either have no biological control agents currently available or the agents already established are not effective over the range of the target weed.
Established agents such as Longitarsus jacobaeae have significantly decreases tansy ragwort density by 75-97% at some sites in Montana. Several agents have recently been established or released, e.g. Russian knapweed and orange hawkweed.
Characterization of the phonological patterns of predator population dynamics in relation to cropping cycles forms a critical framework for delineating the role of generalist predators in economically viable biological control strategies.
Understanding the role of generalist predators in regulating exotic and native pests in a strawberry agroecosystem ultimately allows for the development of management approaches that can promote populations that ultimately translates into improved provisioning of ecosystem services.
Host-specificity tests with the gall-forming weevil Ceutorhynchus cardariae, are completed, and have been submitted a petition for field release. The release of C. cardariae is anticipated to result in a significant decline in L. draba biomass, cover and stem densities at release sites within a 3-5 year time frame.
Results of host-specificity tests conducted so far with the seed feeding weevil C. turbatus show that it is the most specific agent investigated. Because it only reduces seed output of L. draba, it will not contribute to the control of existing stands, but rather reduce the spread of L. draba.
The results from the open-field host range and impact studies with the mite Aceria sp. near acroptiloni look very promising, indicating that this biological control candidate is monophagous and reduces seed output of infested shoots to almost zero. It remains to be shown whether no-choice host-specificity studies with this mite are feasible and meaningful under laboratory conditions.
Host-range and impact studies suggest the mite Aceria angustifoliae is very specific for Russian olive and has significant impact on seed production. Field investigations with the fruit-attacking moth Ananarsia eleagnella suggest that this biological control candidate has a narrow host range under field conditions, certainly narrower than what one would predict from artificial no-choice tests with cut fruits in petri dishes. Therefore, further investigations with A. eleagnella are justified.
Molecular work with Rhinusa spp. & Mecinus spp. has confirmed the complex relationship of most toadflax insects with their host plants in Europe and the need to test Rhinusa spp. and Mecinus spp. from L. vulgaris and L. genistifolia separately. The extensive no-choice and multiple-choice tests carried out in 2011 and in previous years with R. pilosa from L. vulgaris, confirmed its narrow host range and its potential as a biol control agent. Rhinusa brondelii from L. genistifolia also appears to be a promising species which could be released in areas where Dalmatian toadflax remains uncontrolled.
Studies have demonstrated the inability of T. basalis to effectively suppress the stinkbug pest, Nezara viridula, in macadamia nut orchards, thus preventing growers from embarking on augmentative programs that would be uneconomical.
Work has shown the benefits of combining cover-crops with corn to reduce pests and increase Trichogramma incidence.
Because Hippodamia convergens serves as a keystone biological control agent of grain aphids in the Great Plains, knowing how larval and adult food influence development and fecundity may allow better predictions of synchrony of offspring with grain aphid pests in the spring and, thus, the degree of natural biological control that might be expected.