W4185: Biological Control in Pest Management Systems of Plants

(Multistate Research Project)

Status: Inactive/Terminating

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[01/08/2018] [01/17/2019] [01/10/2020] [12/11/2020] [07/05/2022]

Date of Annual Report: 01/08/2018

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 10/03/2017 - 10/05/2017
Period the Report Covers: 10/01/2016 - 09/30/2017

Participants

Bitume, Ellyn - USDA ARS Albany, CA - Ellyn.bitume@ars.usda.gov;
Collier, Tim - U. Wyoming - tcolier@uwyo.edu;
Dudley, Tom - UC Santa Barbara - tdudley@msi.ucsb.edu;
Gebiola, Marco - UC-Riverside - Marco.gebiola@gmail.com;
Gomez-Marco, Franesc - UC-Riverside - Francesc.gomezmarco@ucr.edu;
Haviland, David - UC Coop. Ext. - dhaviland@ucdavis.edu;
Hedstrom, Chris - Oregon DOA - hedstrom@oda.state.or;
Henderson, Ruth - Citrus Research Board - ruth@citrusresearch.org;
Hufbaurer, Ruth - Colorado State Univ. - hufbauer@colostate.edu;
Hunter, Martha - U. of Arizona - mhunter@ag.arizona.edu;
Lambert, Adam - UC Santa Barbara - alambert@ucsb.edu;
Lavine, Laura - WSU -AA - lavine@wsu.edu;
Littlefield, Jeff - Montana State Univ. - jeffreyl@montana.edu;
Marini, Francesca - BBCA ONLUS - Fra.rini@gmail.com;
Miller, Ross - U. of Guam - lotsofbugs@gmail.com;
Mills, Nick - UC-Berkeley - nmills@berkeley.edu;
Milosavljevic, Ivan - UC-Riverside - ivanm@ucr.edu;
Morgan, David - CDFA - dmorgan@cdfa.ca;
Muniz, Alex - CDFA - Alex.muniz@cdfa.ca;
Naranjo, Steve - USDA-ARS, Arizona - Steve.naranjo@ars.usda.gov;
Nechols, Jim - Kansas State U. - jnechols@ksu.edu;
Norelli, Nicole - UC Santa Barbara Nicole - norelli@ucsb.edu;
Norton, Andrew - Colorado State Univ - Andrew.norton@colostate.edu;
Novak, Steve - Boise State U. - snovak@boisestate.edu;
Pandey, Raju - Citrus Research Board - raju@citrusresearch.org;
Park, Ikju - New Mex. State University - ipark@nmsu.edu;
Paterson, Iain - Rhodes Univer. South Africa - I.Paterson@ru.ac.zc;
Paul, Lori - Tubb Canyon Desert Conser. - gaboon@sbcglobal.net;
Pfannenstiel, Bob - USDA APHIS PPQ - Bob.pgannenstiel@aphis.usda.gov;
Pickett, Charles - CDFA - cpickett@cdfa.ca;
Pitcairn, Mike - CDFA - Mike.pitcairn@cdfa.ca.gov;
Portman, Scott - USDA ARS, Albany - Scott.portman@ars.usda.gov;
Pratt, Paul - USDA ARS Albany - Paul.pratt@ars.usda.gov;
Reddy, Gadi V. P. - Montana State Univ. - reddy@montana.edu;
Reddy, Rama - MSU Research Center - Ramadevi.gadi@montana.edu;
Rugman-Jones, Paul - UC-Riverside - paulrj@ucr.edu;
Schall, Kelsey - UC-Riverside - Kelsey.schall@email.ucr.edu;
Schwarzlaender, Mark - Univ. Idaho - markschw@uidaho.edu;
Simmons, Greg - APHIS-PPQ - Gregory.s.simmons@aphis.usda.gov;
Smith, Link - USDA ARS – EBCL - Link.smith@ars.usda.gov;
Spafford, Helen - U. of Hawaii - Helen.spafford@hawaii.edu;
Stahlke, Amanda - Univ. Idaho - astahlke@uidaho.edu;
Stouthamer, Richard - UC-Riverside - Richard.stouthamer@ucr.edu;
Szucs, Marianna - Colorado State/Michigan S. U. - Marianna.szucs@colostate.edu;
Thompson, David - U. New Mexico - dathomps@nmsu.edu;
Venter, Nic - Univ. of the Witwatersrand Nic. - venter@wits.ac.za;
Wilson, Houston - UC-Riverside - Houston.wilson@ucr.edu

Brief Summary of Minutes

Minutes: See attachment for the meeting Agenda.

Business meeting (additional notes)

Discussion of location and date for 2018 meeting: Gadi VP Reddy, Professor of Entomology and Insect Ecology at Western Triangle Agriculture Research Center for Montana State University, is the chair for the next W-4185 annual meeting that will be held in Montana on October 10-12, 2018. Reddy presented six possible locations in Montana to the group in Borrego Springs, CA this fall and they selected “Grouse Mountain Lodge, Whitefish” as the venue for next year’s meeting. This venue is in a very beautiful area near Glacier National Park and should give a unique experience to the participants. The nearest airport to the hotel is Glacier International Airport, Kalispell (Code: FCA) is 12 miles and is about 20 min drive. We look forward to sharing with everyone a small part of our scenic state.

Discussion of recent workgroup renewal Reviewer Comments: Dr. David Thompson (W3185 Adviser and workgroup member) summarized some of the comments from at least one reviewer for the current W renewal submission. As Reviewer Comments have never been communicated to the group (at least in the past 10-15 years), it was constructive to hear thoughts about the project.

Minutes Attachment:

W-4185 2017 Agenda.pdf

Accomplishments

ACCOMPLISHMENTS These are only a selection of 2017 results.  This group works on OVER 140 different species of arthropod and weed pests.  Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies.  Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Select projects are highlighted.  Fieldwork on Reduviidae and Miridae in Southern California and the Western US continued and specimens are incorporated into studies and databases to advance our understanding of distribution ranges of natural enemies and plant pests. Systematic research on Reduviidae has continued to focus on ambush bugs that are natural enemies, but also potentially harm native pollinators. The first comprehensive phylogeny of the group was published, confirming that North American ambush bugs form a closely related group of species. A follow-up study integrating various sources of data (Sanger-derived molecular and genomic, geographic, morphometric, morphological) to delimit North American species in this difficult genus are being finalized, providing for the first time a sound basis for species identification and classification in this species-rich genus. Guam researchers received a grant from USDA-APHIS-CAPS to continue to survey for parasitoids of aphids on Guam and Saipan. Diaeretialla rapae and Aphidius colemani had previously been released on Guam, Saipan, and Palau in 1998, but had not been recovered since then. Collections of the aphids Pentalonia nigronervosa and P. caladii from banana and comb ginger, respectively, and of Aphis gossypii from curcurbits and other hosts revealed the presence of Lysephlebis testaceipes and Lipolexis oregmae on Guam. Aphid mummies from P. nigronervosa, P. caladii, and A. gossypii collected on Saipan were also found to be Lysephlebis testaceipes and Lipolexis oregmae. Two surveys were conducted to examine parasitism of Lygus spp. plant bugs found in alfalfa growing in northeast Wyoming.  Of 330 juvenile Lygus bugs that were collected and reared in the laboratory, parasitic wasps emerged from 3% (June) and 5% (July).  Of about 120 juvenile Lygus that were dissected in the laboratory, wasp eggs or larvae were found in 3% (June) and 8% (July) of individuals.  The appearances of wasp eggs, larvae and cocoons were consistent with parasitoid species that have been previously collected from Lygus in other parts of the U.S. and Canada.   The first North American record of a new species of ant parasitoid that attacks species in the Solenopsis saevissima complex was published, which includes the Red Imported Fire Ant.  Indigenous natural enemy surveys have been conducted for two invasive pests, the brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys and the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri in southern California. BMSB is a highly polyphagous and destructive pest native to China. ACP vectors a bacterium that causes a lethal and incurable citrus disease, huanglongbing (HLB).  The Eucalyptus gall wasp, Ophelimus maskelli, is a significant pest in areas throughout the world. Heavy galling significantly weakens trees as well as causing early defoliation leading to premature death. O. maskelli was recently discovered in southern California along with two associated parasitoid wasps. Closterocerus chamaeleon is a known parasitoid of O. maskelli and has been intentionally introduced in areas of Israel as well as throughout the Mediterranean for use as a biological control agent. The second parasitoid wasp, Selitrichodes neseri, has been intentionally introduced in South Africa as a biological control agent for another Eucalyptus gall wasp, Leptocybe invasa. Biologies of both of these are current targets of studies, with emphasis focusing on temperature and climate. It appears the development time for C. chamaeleon is much less than that of O. maskelli, allowing for the parasitoid population to build much more rapidly than that of the host, making it an excellent natural enemy.  Objective 2.  Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest.  Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. Many of these exploratory trips are only partially successful.  Species sent to quarantine facilities must survive the trip and reproduce.  Subsequent cultures will then be used for non-target host testing and evaluation for potential release.   Guam researchers hand carried plant parts infested with the rust, Puccinia spegazzinii, from Fiji in April 2017 for use against Mikania micrantha on Guam.  The rust was transferred to a few Mikania plants of Guam origin in a quarantine laboratory, which were later transferred to an outside shade-cloth nursery where attempts were made to transfer P. spegazzinii to additional plants prior to releasing the rust island-wide.  While there was some initial transfer of the rust from Fiji plants to Guam plants in the laboratory, no successful transfers outside of the laboratory have been accomplished, and no transfers of P. spegazzinii to Mikania in the field on Guam have occurred.   Surveys were conducted for parasitoids present in Hawaii that might attack the coffee berry borer (CBB), specifically Bethylidae, Cephalonomia spp.  Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies.  Systematics studies generate both molecular and morphological data that are essential to distinguishing between biotypes of both pests and natural enemies. These data also provide information about species biogeography, which ultimately helps select the best biological control species.   Studies have continued to advance the taxonomy, phylogenetics, and classification of Reduviidae. In addition to the first comprehensive phylogeny of ambush bugs, these publications comprise a study on the evolutionary history and classification of the species-rich millipede assassin bugs, a group of millipede specialists, and phylogenetic and biogeographic analyses of the assassin bugs subfamily Physoderinae that includes species feeding on weevils, and the seldom-collected genus Xenocaucus that provides insights into the biogeography of the Eastern Arc Mountains.  Collaborative studies with USDA and Italian taxonomists on the description of Drosophila suzukii parasitoids Asobara spp., Leptopilina japonica and Ganaspis brasiliensis (Figitidae) are underway.  This pest is of enormous significance to many small fruit crops in North America.   A collaborative project in Argentina is focusing on parasites of the imported fire ant (Solenopsis) in South America and of the Little Red Fire Ant (Wasmannia) in the Caribbean and Central America. This project is funded by the National Science Foundation to revise the entire genus, with a focus on North and South America. Standard Sanger-sequencing approaches (ribosomal and mitochondrial loci) are being used as well as novel anchored enrichment approaches to look at relationships and species identification across the entire genus.  Research on leafminer parasitoids is studying the taxonomy and relationships of the tribe Cirrospilini (Eulophidae), which include important parasitoids of the citrus leafminer and the citrus Peelminer. These wasps are niche generalists and attack a broad spectrum of insects mining leaves. Work continues on an NSF grant to revise the classification of the entire superfamily Chalcidoidea. This is a massive undertaking that involves molecular, morphological and bioinformatic approaches to resolve the relationships of the superfamily, and to disseminate information on the group through electronic resources and a new book that outlines the classification and biology of the group. Members of this superfamily are among the most important natural and introduced control agents of other pest insects, and this will form a foundation for all future studies on the group. To date we have obtained nexgen sequencing data for 415 taxa that cover the breadth of the entire superfamily.  Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release.  Many non-target studies and host-specificity tests are underway. Examples follow. In collaboration with researchers at USDA, Italy, Oregon State University, China, and South Korea, 8 parasitoid species were imported that attack the spotted wing drosophila. These parasitoids included at least three larval parasitoids Asobara spp., Leptopilina japonica and Ganaspis brasiliensis, and two pupal parasitoids, Pachycrepoideus vindimiae, Trichopria drosophilae. This material is currently being studied in Quarantine. In collaboration California Dept of Food and Agriculture and USDA Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL) in France, we continued our release efforts with Psyttalia lounsburyi (Braconidae) against the olive fruit fly in different regions of California and the evaluation of Psyttalia ponerophaga. Shipments of roots infested with rush skeletonweed crown moth, Oporopsamma wertheimsteini were received at Monatan State University. Only two pairs of moths emerged.  Parasitism was observed for the first time and was high.  No-choice host specificity testing continued.  The release of Aceria drabae for hoarycress is still under regulatory review by APHIS.  Since January 2017 we have been awaiting the EA to be published in the Federal Register for public comment.  A laboratory colony has been maintained for possible field release.  Host specificity tests with the eriophyid mite Metaculus lepidifolii has been initiated by the BBCA, CABI and MSU for use against perennial pepperweed. Testing of the Turkish population continued. The mite is apparently vagrant species rather than a gall former as previously thought. The mite causes some leaf curing and slight rolling of perennial pepperweed, although symptoms observed at MSU were not as evident as those observed at field sites or at CABI.  A field release permit was submitted to APHIS for Cheilosia urbana to use against hawkweed. A biological assessment was drafted by APHIS and submitted to the US Fish & Wildlife Service April 2017. To date a letter of concurrence has not been signed by the USFWS.  The host range and host specificity of the BMSB parasitoid, T. japonicus, has been completed for approx. 6 species of non-target species (a mix of native and exotic stink bugs) of pentatomids.  Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies.  Many releases and redistributions of natural enemies (millions) were carried out against pests in 2017. Examples include follow.  Approximately 15,350 Aulacidea acroptilonica were redistributed to field sites in CO, ID, MT, OR, and WY. In collaboration California Dept. of Food and Agriculture and USDA Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL) in France, importation efforts for natural enemies of the olive psylla were continued. In 2017 we collected Aulacidea galls present and reared adults for redistribution against Russian knapweed. Approximately 235,600 adults were reared from galls. Adults were released at more than18 field sites in Montana, plus sent to cooperators in CA, CO, ID, NV, UT, WA and WY. The gall wasp is now established and increasing in population at a number of sites in Montana.  In cooperation with the CDFA, more than 3,000,000 million T. radiata have been released in urban areas and organic citrus orchards for the classical biological control of Asian citrus psyllid (ACP). Approximately 100,000 D. aligarhensis have been released in urban areas and organic citrus orchards for the classical biological control of ACP.  Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions.  Collaborations with USDA-ARS surveyed for the presence and activity level of a previously released parasitoid (Microctonus aethiopoides) targeted against alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica) in Montana, Wyoming, and South Dakota. No parasitoids were found from any sampling sites, suggesting failure of this species to persist in the region. This finding contributes to understanding the lack of widespread biological control of alfalfa weevil in the West, a continued major pest problem for producers.    Studies in Utah were completed to describe, by degree-day accumulation as well as calendar date, phenology of host use by adults of the stem-mining weevil Mecinus janthiniformis, a biocontrol agent released widely in western North America to attack Dalmatian toadflax. The weevil was found to exhibit strong protandry, with males preceding females in first appearing on the host plant in the spring.  Therefore, sex-specific degree-day characterizations of adult use of the host plant were developed for males and females of the weevil.  Monitoring of the rush skeletonweed root moth, Bradyrrhoa gilveolella continued at an established release site in Idaho. Although moth populations have declined we have observed a slight decrease in skeletonweed density, cover and size, indicating possible impact on the plant. Preliminary analysis of data indicate that feeding may be impacting large diameter rush skeletonweed roots, leaving plants with smaller diameter roots.  Studies are looking at coffee berry borer endosymbionts and possible interactions with biocontrol agents, specifically Beuaveria bassiana, in Hawaii.  Monitoring impacts of the classical biocontrol agent, Eurytoma erythrinae against the erythrina gall wasp continue. E. erythrinae continues to provide effective suppression of the gall wasp, but extensive damage is still incurred by flowers and reduced seed set results.  <ul> <li>Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. </li> <li>Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. </li> </ul> Midgut metabarcoding analyses of 235 specimens of the Southern Californian putative natural enemy species Phymata pacifica revealed that nectar-feeding insects accounted for only about 15% of prey organisms, while 42% were phytophagous insects including Hemiptera and Lepidoptera and 29% were predatory and parasitic/parasitoid species. While this ambush bug preys on phytophagous insects that include plant pests at a higher percentage than expected, potential intraguild predation and parasitoidism is a concern, while the impact on flower-visiting pollinators may be less dramatic than anticipated. A three-year research and extension study to improve biological control of the Virginia creeper leafhopper, including better understanding the alternate leafhopper hosts and the plants that support these leafhopper populations has been started. Field work has characterized how the life history of Anagrus spp., key biocontrol agents of three species of leafhoppers in grape vineyards, have evolved as the parasitoid populations have moved from natural riparian host plant communities, where hosts are scarce, to the agricultural setting, where hosts are much more abundant.  Parasitoid fecundity was found to evolve upward in agricultural sites.  Conservation biocontrol of Asian citrus natural enemies, especially syrphid flies (videography studies indicated that this generalist predators are the key natural enemies of ACP nymphs) is being assessed. The focus of this work in on the provisionment of floral resources in citrus orchards to attract and retain syrphid flies and then document impacts in citrus that have and lack floral resources.  <ul> <li>Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. </li> </ul> A field study using the insect pathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana, with the nematode Steinernema feltiae with Barricade polymer gel 1 %, pyrethrin, combined formulations of B. bassiana GHA and pyrethrin, Jasmonic acid (JA) and chlorpyrifos (as a chemical check) was performed to determine to what extent they affect midge larval populations, kernel damage levels, grain yield, and quality and the impacts on adult parasitoid Macroglenes penetrans populations. The results indicated that Jasmonic acid and S. feltiae were most effective in reducing larval populations and kernel damage levels, and producing the higher yield of spring wheat, compared to the water control at both study locations in Montana. The present study also suggested that B. bassiana and pyrethrin may work synergistically, as exemplified by lower total larval populations and kernel damage levels when applied together. A survey of invasive ants was continued on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands during 2017. This activity is part of an ongoing project on the surveillance of Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and the CNMI.  A related study seeks to describe attendance behavior of Guam’s invasive ants towards aphids, scales and mealybugs commonly encountered in the Marianas, and the effects this might have on biological control agents against hemipteran plant pests.  A large study at the Univ. of California is looking at pesticides used in vineyards, and the focus has been on the application of materials that do not disrupt natural enemies. Studies are underway on factors that have caused significant decreases in densities of populations of a key omnivore/predator, Geocoris pallens in California.  Population decreases are associated with strong increases in the expression of cannibalism, which appears to be linked to infection by a pathogen.  Work continues to characterize the viral community associated with Geocoris, to identify the causal agent involved.   Ecoinformatics methods (analyzing a large database of farmer- and consultant-generated data) are being used to study the impact of pesticide use in California citrus orchards on populations of Euseius spp. predatory mites and their role as biological control agents of citrus thrips and citrus red mites.  No evidence has been found for long-term suppression of Euseius populations in citrus groves that have higher pesticide use, and furthermore no evidence that either citrus thrips or citrus red mites are induced or secondary pests.  Eleven insecticides were evaluated for toxicity against four predator species. Highest toxicities were observed with imidacloprid and clothianidin against early instar nymphs of Geocoris punctipes; older nymphs were less susceptible. The pyrethroid bifenthrin was highly toxic to adults of G. punctipes and Orius insidiosus. Buprofezin, pyriproxyfen, spirotetramat, and spiromesifen were minimally lethal with the exception of pyriproxyfen that was mildly toxic to Chrysoperla rufilabris.  Cry-protein (Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab) concentrations in plants, herbivores, and predators were quantified and compared with laboratory-bioassays in which predators were fed with Cry-protein containing caterpillars. In the field, Cry-protein concentrations strongly decreased from plants to herbivores to predators. Concentrations in arthropods were mainly affected by feeding mode and to a lesser degree by seasonal variation. Cry-protein concentrations measured in predators in laboratory-bioassays were low or below the detection limit indicating that laboratory feeding studies represent a realistic exposure scenario and are thus informative for the non-target risk assessment of Bt-cotton.  Alfalfa weevil is an important pest in forage alfalfa worldwide, and especially so on the Northern Plains. Neither the weevil-specific fungus, Erynia phytonomi, or the weevil’s parasitoids are able to routinely suppress outbreaks as they do in the eastern U.S. A new Bacillus thuringiensis var. galleriae, having a Cry8Da coleopteran-active toxin, has been recently commercialized. The efficacy of this product was tested against H. postica in replicated field trials in north central Montana. The B. thuringiensis gave 27-40% reduction in weevil numbers at the low label rate, 55-59 % for the high label rate. Mean parasitism at the two research locations varied from 5-26% and 17-36% respectively, but application of the B. thuringiensis had no significant effect on parasitism levels, i.e. parasitism was not greater in treated than in carrier control plots.  <ul> <li>Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. </li> </ul> The coconut rhinoceros beetles invading Guam (2007), Hawaii (2013), Papua New Guinea (2015), and Solomon Islands (2015) are genetically different from other populations off this pest, are resistant to Oryctes nudivirus, the biocontrol agent of choice for this species. For these reasons, they are being referred to as the "the Guam Biotype" CRB-G.  Ongoing testing of 30 O. nudivirus strains collected from the Philippines in 2017 has revealed a single strain that shows virulence to CRB-G.  This purified strain was subsequently sent to Guam where it was released during the fall of 2017 using infected CRB as vectors.  Results of this release are pending.  Two datasets were contributed to researchers who are building large, composite datasets to evaluate the role of landscape diversification on the success of biological control. Contrary to the conventional view, neither of the studies indicated that simplified landscapes necessarily erode the viability of biological control.  Tests at the University of Wyoming continued on whether the diversity and presence of cover crops interseeded into standing corn impacts the activity-density and diversity of ground beetles (Carabidae). Producers are interested in this practice to increase forage available for grazing cattle, but we have limited research available to predict how it will impact other parts of the ecosystem.  Cultural management studies for macadamia orchards enhance extant natural enemies (Coccinellidae spp., Encarsia) of macadamia felted coccid (Erioccous ironsidei). Work has developed a PCR protocol for identifying E. ironisidei from predators gut.  Goal C:  Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy.  Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies.  A lab experiment was conducted to examine the relationship between photoperiod and diapause induction in populations of the green lacewing Chrysopa oculata from Manhattan KS and Ithaca NY. The goal was to determine whether diapause responses had changed over the 30-year period between 1986 and 2017 and, if so, whether those responses could be correlated with changes in temperature associated with climate change.  Results indicate greater variation in diapause responses at both locations compared to 30 years ago. Whereas 100% and 0% diapause had been observed under the shortest and longest daylengths, respectively, in 1986, in 2016-17 almost all photoperiods at both localities produced a mixture of diapausing and nondiapausing individuals. The critical photoperiod associated with 50% incidence of diapause was shorter in Ithaca NY, corresponding to about a two-week delay in diapause into autumn. However, the critical photoperiod did not shift in Manhattan KS.  Objective 11. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility.  Results have been reported under other objectives, but a few specific examples from 2017 follow. Cold storage of the Drosophila suzukii parasitoids Pachycrepoideus vindimiae (Pteromalidae), Trichopria drosophilae (Diapriidae) was studied in order to improve mass production. In 2017, Colorado State researchers went to Kamloops, BC to receive field collected galls containing larvae and pupae of the yellow toadflax biocontrol agent, Rhinusa linariae .  These galls were held in containment until eclosion to adult.  In all, nearly 700 weevils are ready for mass rearing studies next spring.  They also conducted mass rearing trials using the yellow toadflax biocontrol agent, Mecinus janthinus.  Nearly 1,000 adults were produced and are ready for further trials spring and summer 2018. Working continued on fitness effects of mass rearing and founder colony size for Trichogramma spp.; searching behavior, and specifically if a semiochemical method and can be developed to attract Trichogramma papilionis into target crops. Have identified at least 3 compounds released when Helicoverpa zea eggs are laid on sunn hemp plants that attract T. papilionis in olfactometer trials. It would appear that these compounds are released in larger amounts when eggs are deposited on the plants, suggesting a co-evolved plant defense mechanism.  Objective 12. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies.  Many results have been reported under other objectives. A few examples follow: University of California researchers have collaborated on a three-year research and extension study to improve biological control of the Virginia creeper leafhopper, including the augmentative release of Anagrus spp. to help suppress leafhopper pests in vineyards. In collaboration with researchers at USDA, two pupal parasitoids, Pachycrepoideus vindimiae and Trichopria drosophilae were released near blue berry and strawberry fields to ‘inoculate’ these resident parasitoids before and after the harvest cycle. Univ. of Hawaii is examining possibilities for use of Phymastichus spp. for augmentative biological control against coffee berry borer.  Goal D:  Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control.  Objective 13. Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents.  Results from sampling alfalfa fields and additional, semi-natural and natural habits showed that the native ladybird beetle Coccinella novemnotata has continued to persist widely in Utah as a rare species, despite competition from the now dominant, introduced biocontrol agent of aphid pests, Coccinella septempunctata, following this exotic species’ successful establishment at high densities throughout the region.  Colorado State researchers and colleagues are studying how Diorhabda species imported to control Tamarix have adapted to novel environments, and the extent and consequences of hybridization among those species  Objective 14. Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. During 2017, the Daane laboratory (UC-Berkeley) has presented at 38 research or grower-oriented programs to reach an estimated audience of about 4000 persons (estimated at 100 persons per presentation). As part of an NSF funded project modules are being developed that explain parasitoids to high school students, Master Gardeners and other venues. The approach is to teach more upper-division students or adults about the importance of parasitoids in biological control. We are developing outreach materials to teach about chalcidoids and other parasitic Hymenoptera in the classroom. The idea is to develop independent modules for classrooms centered on yellow pan trap ‘observatories’ as a means to discuss ‘true’ biodiversity. Ideas for outreach are being vetted through a broad group of local teachers, and extension researchers at UC Riverside and Texas A&M University.  Online powerpoint presentation (with audio) on biodiversity of parasitic Hymenoptera have been developed that we have been able to get introduced into high school curriculums on ecology. We are currently in the process of developing a web page that can deliver all of the products. We are also working with Master Gardeners to develop modules and information appropriate for their clientele.  Five extension articles on Asian Citrus Psyllid (ACP) biocontrol and invasives were published. A total of 20 extension presentations were made. Topics covered included ACP and BMSB biocontrol, invasive avocado pests, and general overviews on invasions, IPM, and biocontrol. Two detailed web pages on dung biocontrol and ACP biocontrol in CA (<a href="http://www.biocontrol.ucr.edu/">www.biocontrol.ucr.edu</a>) were developed as were blog posts on ACP natural enemies (<a href="http://www.cisr.ucr.edu/">www.cisr.ucr.edu</a>). Three extension conferences on invasive pests and their management were organized. Numerous interviews were given on biocontrol and these included newspaper interviews (e.g, The Guardian and LA Times TV interviews [e.g., (KCAL-9), radio interviews (e.g., National Public Radio), and trade magazine interviews (e.g., Ag. Alert and Western Farm Press).  Action thresholds based on predator to prey ratios were developed for the management of Bemisia tabaci in cotton. Multiple grower and pest control advisor (PCAs) workshops, demonstrations and extension circulars were developed and conducted to teach end-users about the new technology. Validation trials using the new biocontrol-based thresholds were conducted in collaboration with growers and PCAs in Arizona and Mexico. Follow-up surveys indicated that growers and PCAs were receptive to using the new thresholds and clearly understood the value of biological control in their pest management activities.

Publications

Abram, P.K., K. Hoelmer, A. Acebes-Doria, H. Andrews, E.H. Beers, M.S. Hoddle. 2017. Indigenous arthropod natural enemies of the invasive brown marmorated stink bug in North America and Europe. J. Pest Sci. 90: 1009-1020. DOI 10.1007/s10340-017-0891-7   Antwi, F.B., G. Shrestha, G.V.P. Reddy, and S. Jaronski. 2017. Entomopathogens in conjunction with imidacloprid could be used to manage wireworms (Coleoptera: Elateridae) on spring wheat. Canadian Entomologist 149: doi:10.4039/tce.2017.58.   Biondi, A., Wang, X-G., Miller, J. C., Miller, B., Shearer, P. W., Zappalà, L., Siscaro, G., Walton, V. W., Hoelmer, K. A., and Daane. K. M. 2017. Innate olfactory responses of Asobara japonica toward fruits infested by the invasive spotted wing drosophila. Journal of Insect Behavior. 10.1007/s10905-017-9636-y   Bitume, EV, D Bean, AR Stahlke, RA Hufbauer. 2017. Hybridization affects life-history traits and host specificity in Diorhabda spp. Biological Control 111:45-52. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2017.05.009   Brodeur, J., Paul K. Abram, George E. Heimpel and Russell H. Messing. 2017. Trends in biological control: public interest, international networking and research direction. BioControl DOI 10.1007/s10526-017-9850-8   Burks, R.A., Mottern, J.L., Dominguez, C., Heacox, S. and J.M. Heraty. 2017. Biting the bullet: Revisionary notes on the Oraseminae of the Old World (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Eucharitidae). Journal of Hymenoptera Research 55: 139–188.    Eisenring, M., Romies, J., Naranjo, S.E., Meissle, M. 2017. Multitrophic Cry-protein flow in a dual-gene Bt-cotton field. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 247: 283-289.   Evans, E. W. 2017.  Fates of rare species under siege from invasion: persistence of Coccinella novemnotata Herbst in western North America alongside an invasive congener.  Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 5: Article 152 doi: 10.3389/fevo.2017.00152.   Forthman, M. and Weirauch, C. 2017. Millipede assassins and allies (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Ectrichodiinae, Tribelocephalinae): total evidence phylogeny, revised classification and evolution of sexual dimorphism. Systematic Entomology 42: 575-595. DOI: 10.1111/syen.12232. Gaskin, J.F and J. L. Littlefield. 2017 Invasive Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens) creates large patches almost entirely by rhizomic growth. Invasive Plant Science and Management 2017 10:119–124.   Georgieva, A., Gordon, E., Weirauch, C. 2017. Sylvatic host associations of Triatominae and implications for Chagas disease reservoirs: a comprehensive review and new host records based on archival specimens. PeerJ, DOI 10.7717/peerj.3826 Gutierrez-Coarite, R., Yoneishi, N., Mollinedo, J., Pulakkattu-thodi, I., Wright, M.G., & Geib, S. PCR-based gut content analysis to detect predation of Eriococcus ironsidei (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae) by Coccinellidae species in macadamia nut orchards in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology (under revision.) Herreid, J.S. Heraty, J.M. 2017. Hitchhikers at the dinner table: exploitation of extrafloral nectaries by a monophyletic group of ant parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Eucharitidae). Systematic Entomology 42: 204–229.   Hoddle, M.S., C.D. Hoddle, M. Alzubaidy, J. Kabashima, J.N. Nisson, J. Millar, and M. Dimson. 2017. Rhynchophorus vulneratus palm weevil is eradicated from Laguna Beach. Cal. Ag. 71: 23-29. Hogg, B. N., Mills, N. J., and Daane, K. M. 2017. Temporal patterns in the abundance and species composition of spiders on host plants of the invasive moth Epiphyas postvittana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Environmental Entomology, 46(3): 502–510. doi: 10.1093/ee/nvx065   Hopper, K.R., Lanier, K., Rhoades, J.H., Coutinot, D., Mercadier, G., Ramaulde, N., Roche, M., Woolley, J.B., and J.M. Heraty. 2017. Host specificity of Aphelinus species considered for introduction to control Diuraphis noxia. Biological Control 107: 21–32.   Hwang, W. S. and Weirauch, C. 2017. Uncovering hidden diversity: phylogeny and taxonomy of Physoderinae (Reduviidae, Heteroptera) with emphasis on Physoderes Westwood in the Oriental and Australasian regions. European Journal of Taxonomy 341: https://doi.org/10.5852/ejt.2017.341 Kaçar, G., Wang, X.-G., Biondi, A., and Daane, K. M. 2017. Linear functional response by two pupal Drosophila parasitoids foraging within single or multiple patch environments. PloS ONE 12(8): e0183525. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal  Kaufman, L.V. & Wright, M.G. 2017. Assessing probabilistic risk assessment approaches for insect biological control introductions. Insects 8(3), 67. (Special Issue Biological Control of Invertebrate Pests.) doi:10.3390/insects8030067 Keyser, C. A., Fernandes, E. K. K., Rangel, D. E. N., Foster, R. N., Jech, L. E., Reuter, K. C., Black, L. R., Jaronski, S., Flake, D. D., Evans, E. W., and Roberts, D. R. 2017.  Laboratory bioassays and field-cage trials of Metarhizium spp. isolates with field-collected Mormon crickets (Anabrus simplex). BioControl 62: 257-268.   Lichtenberg, Elinor M., Christina M. Kennedy, Claire Kremen, Péter Batáry, Frank Berendse, Riccardo Bommarco, Nilsa A. Bosque-Perez, Luísa G. Carvalheiro, William E. Snyder, Neal M. Williams, Rachel Winfree, Faye Benjamin, Claire Brittain, Rebecca Chaplin-Kramer, Yann Clough, Heather Connelly, Brian Danforth, Tim Diekötter, Sanford Eigenbrode, Johan Ekroos, Elizabeth Elle, Breno Freitas, Yuki Fukuda, Hannah Gaines, Claudio Gratton, Andrea Holzschuh, Rufus Isaacs, Marco Isaia, Shalene Jha, Dennis Jonason, Vincent P. Jones, Björn Klatt, Alexandra Klein, Jochen Krauss, Deborah Letourneau, Sarina Macfadyen, Rachel Mallinger, Emily Martin, Eliana Martinez, Jane Memmott, Lora Morandin, Lisa Neame, Sandra Öberg, Mark Otieno, Mia Park, Lukas Pfiffner, Michael Pocock, Carlos Ponce, Simon Potts, Katja Poveda, Mariange Ramos, Jay A. Rosenheim, Maj Rundlöf, Hillary Sardiñas, Manu Saunders, Nicole Schon, Amber Sciligo, C. Sheena Sidhu, Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter, Teja Tscharntke, Milan Veselý, Wolfgang Weisser, Julianna Wilson, David W. Crowder. 2017.  A global synthesis of the effects of diversified farming systems on arthropod diversity within fields and across agricultural landscapes. Global Change Biology 23:4946-4957.   Lopez, V.M., M.S. Hoddle, J.A. Francese, D.R. Lance, and A.M. Ray. 2017. Assessing flight potential of the invasive Asian longhorned beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) with computerized flight mills. Journal of Economic Entomology 110: 1070-1077. doi: 10.1093/jee/toxo46   Manandhar, R., Wang, K.H., Hooks, C.R.R. & Wright, M.G. 2017. Effects of strip-tilled cover cropping on the population density of thrips and predatory insects in a cucurbit agroecosystem. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology20: 1254-1259. Marshall, S. D. G., A. Moore, M. Vaqalo, and T. A. Jackson, “A new, virus-free haplotype of the coconut rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) invades the Pacific region,” Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, vol. 149, pp. 127–134, 2017.   Masonick, P., Michael, A., Frankenberg, S., Rabitsch, W. and Weirauch, C. 2017. Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of the ambush bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Phymatinae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 114: 225-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2017.06.010 Messing, RH & J. Brodeur. 2017. Current challenges to the implementation of classical biological control. BioControl DOI 10.1007/s10526-017-9862-4   Milosavljević I, Schall K, Hoddle C, Morgan D, Hoddle M. 2017. Biocontrol program targets Asian citrus psyllid in California’s urban areas. California Agriculture 71(3) 169-177. Milosavljević, I. and M.S. Hoddle. 2017. Teaming up against Asian citrus psyllids. Citrus Industry 98(3): 32-35. Naranjo, S.E., Ellsworth, P.C. 2017. Methodology for developing life tables for sessile insects in the field using the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, in cotton as a model system. Journal of Observed Experiments (129): e56150, doi:10.3791/56150.   Nechols, J. R., J. J. Obrycki, J. R. Ruberson, L. R. Milbrath, G. S. Albuquerque, Y-F Chang, J. López-Arroyo. 2017. Integrating Science with Practice: A Tribute to the Life and Work of Maurice J. Tauber.  American Entomologist 63(4): 251-258.   Pellissier, M.E., Nelson, Z. Jabbour, R. 2017. Ecology and management of the alfalfa weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Western United States alfalfa. Journal of Integrated Pest Management 8: 1-7.   Peters, R.S., Krogmann, L., Mayer, C., Donath, A., Gunkel, S., Muesemanm, K., Kozlov, A., Podsiadlowski, L., Petersen, M., Lanfear, R., Diez, P., Heraty, J.M., Kjer, K., Klopfstein, S., Meier, R., Polidori, C., Schmitt, T., Liu, S., Zhou, X., Wappler, T., Rust, J., Misof, B. and O. Nieuis 2017. Evolutionary history of the sawflies, wasps, ants, and bees. Current Biology 27, 1013–1018.   Portman, S.L., S.M. Krishnankutty, and G.V.P. Reddy. 2016. Entomopathogenic nematodes combined with adjuvants presents a new potential biological control method for managing the wheat stem sawfly, Cephus cinctus (Hymenoptera: Cephidae). PLoS ONE 11(12): e0169022.   Rogers, H. Eric Buhle , Jannicke Hille Ris Lambers , Evan Fricke , Ross Miller, Joshua Tewksbury. 2017.  Effects of an invasive predator cascade to plants via mutualism disruption.  Nature Communications DOI 10.1038/ncomms14557.   Rosenheim, J. A., and C. Gratton. 2017.  Ecoinformatics (Big Data) for agricultural entomology: pitfalls, progress, and promise. Annual Review of Entomology 62:399-417.   Schall, K.A. and M.S. Hoddle. 2017. Disrupting the ultimate invasive pest partnership. Citrograph 8: 38-43. Schall, K.A. and M.S. Hoddle. 2017. The pest partnerships that threaten citrus: Biocontrol of Asian citrus psyllid can be improved by controlling ants. Citrus Industry 98 (2): 28-31. Shrestha, G., and G.V.P. Reddy.2017. Field efficacy of insect pathogen, botanical and jasmonic acid for the management of wheat midge Sitodiplosis mosellana and the impact on adult parasitoid Macroglenes penetrans populations in spring wheat. Insect Science 24: doi:10.1111/1744-7917.12548.   Tay, Jai Wei, M.S. Hoddle, A. Mulchandani, D-H Choe. 2017. Development of an alginate hydrogel to deliver aqueous bait for pest ant management. Pest Management Science DOI 10.1002/ps.4616 Tena, A., R. Stouthamer, R., and M.S. Hoddle. 2017. Effect of host deprivation on the foraging behavior of the Asian citrus psyllid parasitoid, Tamarixia radiata: observations from the laboratory and field. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 163: 51-59 doi: 10.1111.eea.12550   Vankosky, M.A. and M.S. Hoddle. 2017. An assessment of interspecific competition between two introduced parasitoids of Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Liviidae) on caged citrus plants. Insect Science. DOI 10.1111/1744-7916.12490   Vankosky, M.A. and M.S. Hoddle. 2017. The effects of conspecific and heterospecific interactions on foraging and oviposition behaviors of two parasitoids of Diaphorina citri. Biocontrol Science and Technology 27: 739-754.   Weirauch, C., Forthman, M., Grebennikov, V. and Banar, P. 2017. From Eastern Arc Mountains to extreme sexual dimorphism: systematics of the enigmatic assassin bug genus Xenocaucus (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Tribelocephalinae). Organisms Diversity and Evolution 17: 421-445. DOI: 10.1007/s13127-016-0314-2 Willden, S. A. and E. W. Evans. 2017.  Phenology of the Dalmatian Toadflax biological control agent Mecinus janthiniformis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Utah. Environmental Entomology, online publication doi: 10.1093/ee/nvx174.   Wilson, H., and Daane, K. M. 2017. Review of ecologically-based pest management in California vineyards (special issue “Arthropod Pest Control in Orchards and Vineyards”). Insects 8, 108. doi:10.3390/insects8040108   Wilson, H., Miles, A., Daane, K. M., Altieri, M. A. 2017. Landscape diversity and crop vigor outweigh influence of local diversification on biological control of a vineyard pest. Ecosphere 8(4): e01736. doi/10.1002/ecs2.1736   Wolfe, KM. 2017.  Ecology and Intraguild Relationships Among the Invasive Wasp Ophelimus maskelli and Two Associated Parasitoid Wasps Closterocerus chamaeleon and Selitrichodes neseri (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in California.  MS Thesis.  Department of Entomology.  UC Riverside.  84 pp. Wright, M.G. & Bennett, G.B. Evolution of biological control agents following introduction to new environments. BioControl, DOI 10.1007/s10526-017-9830-z (published online, 2017) Wright, M.G. 2017. Assessing host use and population level impacts on non-target species by introduced natural enemies: can host range testing provide insight? Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. Malaysia. P.G. Mason, D.R. Gillespie and C. Vincent (Eds.). CAB International. 50-51. Xin, B., Liu, P., Zhang, S., Yang, Z., Daane, K. M. and Zheng, Y. 2017. Research and application of Chouioia cunea Yang (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in China. BioControl Science and Technology 27(3): 301-310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09583157.2017.1285865

Impact Statements

Five extension articles on Asian Citrus Psyllid (ACP) biocontrol and invasives were published. A total of 20 extension presentations were made. Topics covered ACP and BMSB biocontrol, avocado pests, general overviews on invasions, IPM, and biocontrol. Two web pages on dung biocontrol and ACP biocontrol were developed as were blog posts on ACP natural enemies. Three extension conferences on invasive pests and their management were organized. Numerous interviews were given on biocontrol and these included newspaper interviews, radio interviews, and trade magazines.

Date of Annual Report: 01/17/2019

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 10/10/2018 - 10/12/2018
Period the Report Covers: 10/01/2017 - 09/30/2018

Participants

Technical Committee Members and Visitors Present

Bean, Dan Colorado Dept. Agriculture Dan.bean@ag.state.co.us;
Borkent, Chris California Dept. of Food and Agriculture chris.borkent@gmail.com;
Collier, Tim U. Wyoming tcolier@uwyo.edu;
Cristofaro, Massimo Rome, Italy mcristofaro@casaccia.enea.it;
Daane, Kent UC-Berkeley kdaane@ucanr.edu;
Dillman, Adler UC-Riverside adlerd@ucr.edu;
Evans, Ted Utah State Ted.evans@ usu.edu;
Gadi, Ramadevi Montana State Univ. ramadevi.gadi@montana.edu;
Gaffke, Alex Montana State Univ. Alexander.gaffke@msu.montana.edu;
Gaskin, John USDA, ARS Sidney, MT jgaskin@sidney.ars.usda.gov;
Hinz, Hariet CABI h.hinz@cabi.org;
Hoddle, Mark UC-Riverside Mark.hoddle@ucr.edu;
Hogg, Brian USDA, ARS Albany, CA brian.hogg@ars.usda.gov;
Johnson, Marshall UC-Riverside mwjohnson@ucanr.edu;
Joshi, Neelendra University of Arkansas nkjoshi@uark.edu;
Kaltenbach, John Colorado Department of Agriculture john.kaltenbach@ag.state.co.us;
Keever, Kenneth USDI, BLM, Havre, MT kenny.keever@blm.gov;
LeBeck, Lynn ANBP, Clovis, CA exdir@anbp.org;
Leppla, Norm & Carol Univ. of Florda ncleppa@ufl.edu;
Littlefield, Jeff Montana State Univ. jeffreyl@montana.edu;
Marini, Francesca BBCA ONLUS Fra.rini@gmail.com;
Meers, Scott Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development scott.meers@gov.ab.ca;
Milan, Joseph Idaho Dept. of Agriculture Joseph_Milan@blm.gov;
Miller, Deb Montana State Univ. debra.miller13@montana.edu;
Miller, Ross U. of Guam lotsofbugs@gmail.com;
Morgan, David CDFA dmorgan@cdfa.ca;
Nikoukar, Atoosa Univ. Idaho anikoukar@uidaho.edu;
Novak, Steve Boise State U. snovak@boisestate.edu;
Nowierski, Robert USDA-NIFA rnovierski@csrees.usda.gov;
Ode, Paul Colorado State University Paul.ode@colostate.edu;
Orcutt, Julie Montana State Univ. julie.orcutt1@montana.edu;
Ozsoy, Zeynep Colorado Mesa university aozsoy@coloradomesa.edu'
Pfannenstiel, Bob USDA APHIS PPQ Bob.pgannenstiel@aphis.usda.gov;
Picard, Dan Montana State Univ.(Volunteer) danpicard76@gmail.com'
Pitcairn, Mike CDFA Mike.pitcairn@cdfa.ca.gov;
Pratt, Paul USDA ARS Albany Paul.pratt@ars.usda.gov;
Price, Joel Oregon Dept. of Agriculture, Salem jprice@oda.state.or.us;
Randall, Carol USDA Forest service, Idaho crandall@fs.fed.us;
Rashed, Arash Univ. Idaho arashed@uidaho.edu;
Rector, Brian USDA, ARS, Reno, NV Brian.rector@ars.usda.gov;
Reddy, Gadi V. P. Montana State Univ. reddy@montana.edu;
Reimer, Jasmine Montana Dept. of agriculture, Helena jreimer@mt.gov;
Rice, Peter University of Montana, Missoula peter.rice@mso.umt.edu;
Romerio, Carmela USDI, BLM, Billings, MT cromerio@blm.gov;
Rondon, Silvia Oregon State Univ. Silvia.rondon@oregonstate.edu;
Sandhi, Ramandeep Montana State Univ. ramandeepkaursandhi@montana.edu;
Saunders, Chris Biological Technician (retired), Edmonton chrsau@telus.net;
Sforza, Rene USDA ARS EBCL rsforza@ars-ebcl.org;
Sharma, Anamika Montana State Univ. anamika.sharma@montana.edu;
Sheehey, Kirsten UC-Santa Barbara kirstensheehy@ucsb.edu;
Shrestha, Govinda Montana State Univ. govindamontanastate@gmail.com;
Sing, Sharlene USDA, FS, Bozeman, MT ssing@fs.fed.us;
Smith, Link USDA ARS – EBCL Link.smith@ars.usda.gov;
Stahlke, Amanda Univ. Idaho astahlke@uidaho.edu;
Thompson, David U. New Mexico dathomps@nmsu.edu;
West, Natalie USDA, ARS, Sidney, MT Natalie.west@ars.usda.gov;
Wilson, Houston UC-Riverside Houston.wilson@ucr.edu;
Wright, Mark Univ. of Hawaii markwrig@hawaii.edu;
Yang, Pahoua Oregon State Univ. Silvia.rondon@oregonstate.edu

Brief Summary of Minutes

Minutes Attachment:

W4185 Program and Minutes 2018.pdf

Accomplishments

These are only a selection of 2018 results.  This large, collaborative group works on OVER 140 different species of arthropod and weed pests.  Goal A:  Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies  Objective 1.  Survey indigenous natural enemies.  Surveys of parasitism of Epiphyas postvittana by resident parasitoids were conducted in California. Parasitism occurred wherever larval populations of this leafroller were found. Parasitism by Pediobius ni and the larval parasitoid Meteorus ictericus occurred throughout the region with Apanteles sp. in the south and Enytus eureka in the north also making important contributions to biotic resistance.  Northern California vineyards were surveyed for the egg parasitoids (Anagrus spp.) attacking the Virginia creeper leafhopper.  Field surveys for native and introduced egg parasitoids of the brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB) have been completed for southern California and in urban areas adjacent to agricultural production areas of the San Joaquin Valley that are at risk of BMSB invasion. Methods included deployment of frozen sentinel egg masses, field collection of BMSB egg masses, and sticky traps with BMSB pheromone. Results indicate little parasitism of fresh and frozen BMSB egg masses by resident egg parasitoids. Trissolcus japonicus, a self-introduced parasitoid of BMSB eggs from Asia, has not been detected in California. Sticky traps captured Astata sp., native predatory wasps of stink bugs.  Completed field work in citrus orchards in southern California indicated that native predators, especially hover fly larvae, are predators of Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) nymphs. Adult flies are amenable to manipulation via the provisionment of floral resources placed in orchards.  Lobularia maritima is very attractive to adult hover flies. ACP infestations close to these flowering plants suffer significantly higher levels of mortality when compared to ACP patches that are not close to this cover crop.  Research on ant parasitoids, which include invasive ants in the genera Pheidole, Solenopsis and Wasmannia, are included in a revision of the Orasema straminiepes species group. A large analysis of the subfamily based on Anchored Hybrid Enrichment procedures was published that will allow the use hundreds of gene loci to address both species level differences and their relationships. Results suggest a single invasion of the group into the New World, followed by an explosive radiation onto a number of different ant genera.  Diaeretialla rapae and Aphidius colemani, previously been released on Guam, Saipan, and Palau in 1998, have not been recovered.  In addition, Lysephlebis testaceipes had been released nearly 20 years before, and only recovered in 1998 on Guam and Rota. Euxestonotus error and Platygaster tuberosula have been evaluated for wheat midge management. In 2018, researchers were not able to release the parasitoids in midge infested wheat fields though the same 2016 parasitoid rearing procedure was used. Parasitoid emergence percentage was nearly zero, and only about 10 parasitoids were found to emergence in insect cages but at the end of crop harvest season. P. tuberosula was found in nearby released fields of 2016. Two characters were used for identification of this parasitoid.  It remained unclear what is the cause for not seeing the E. error in nearby released sites. Possibly it was due to difference in preference stage of wheat midge.  Hypera postica is an important pest in forage alfalfa worldwide. Researchers examined the efficacy of a B. thuringiensis product against the H. postica in north central Montana. Because it has been suggested that efficiency of the parasitoids, Bathyplectes curculionis and Oomyzus incertus, was somewhat inversely proportional to host numbers, they sought to determine if a partial reduction of larval H. postica populations with a B. thuringiensis would yield to greater parasitoid efficiency, manifested as higher percent parasitism among the surviving larvae. The B. thuringiensis gave 27-40% reduction in weevil numbers at the low label rate, 55-59 % for the high label rate. Mean parasitism at the two research locations varied from 5-26% and 17-36% respectively, but application of the B. thuringiensis had no significant effect on parasitism levels, i.e. parasitism was not greater in treated than in carrier control plots. Phyllotreta cruciferae is pest of canola in the Northern Great Plains of the USA. Field trials were conducted to test the efficacy of  several commercially available biopesticides including Entrust® , entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae + Barricade® (polymer  gel 1%), Aza-Direct® , Pyganic 1.4® EC, Grandevo® SC, Venerate® XC (Heat killed Burkholderia sp. strain A396 as seed treatment and foliar application) and Gaucho® (chemical check) for P. cruciferae management at two locations in Montana. Products were evaluated based on canola leaf area injury ratings and seed yield levels. Although, there was no clear trend of canola yield increase, selected biopesticide treatments were effective in maintaining low leaf area injury ratings as compared to untreated control. Entrust was able to maintain low leaf area injury ratings (8.5-14.5%) when compared to untreated control (16.0-21.4%) at both the locations. Entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema feltiae + Barricade® and Venerate® applied as foliar treatments maintained significantly lower feeding injury pressure at Sweetgrass (11.8%) and Conrad (13.4%) locations respectively, when compared to the untreated control. Results suggest that these treatments were comparable in efficacy to the seed treatment Gaucho®. Other, biopesticide products- Aza-Direct® and Pyganic 1.4® EC treatments did not provide effective control of P. cruciferae at both the locations.  Cephus cinctus (WSS) is an important wheat pest in the Northern Great Plains of US. This study provides information on synthetic plant defense elicitors (Actigard® and cis-jasmone) and a botanical (Azadirachtin®) products effect on adult settling behavior in no-choice and free-choice assays in the lab. These chemicals impact on WSS and winter wheat plant fitness, and Bracon spp. adult population and parasitism levels were determined under field conditions. The results showed that Actigard and Azadirachtin treatments significantly reduced percentage of adults settled on treated plants compared to control plants in free-choice, but without effects in no-choice assays. In field situations; regardless of application timing and sampling period, none of the chemicals significantly repelled and reduced adult population and infestation levels, respectively. However, Actigard two time applications had significantly lower infestation levels at 30 and 50 days post applications compared to control, but no effect at Conrad location. The field study indicated that Actigard two time applications significantly increased diapausing larval mortality rates and lowered stem lodging rates compared to control at all study locations. No significant differences were found in wheat yield and quality in plots treated with chemicals and controls at any location. Bracon spp. adult population and parasitism levels were not negatively affected with use of chemicals.  Objective 2.  Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest.  Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year.  Many of these exploratory trips are only partially successful.  Species sent to quarantine facilities must survive the trip and reproduce.  Subsequent cultures will then be used for non-target host testing and evaluation for potential release.  Select studies follow. In collaboration with the CDFA and USDA Biological Control Laboratory in France, importation continued of Psyllaphaegus spp. attacking olive psyllid.  This group also imported Psyttalia ponerophaga and P. lounsburyi attacking olive fruit fly. Parasitoids of Macroglenes penetrans, Euxestonotus error and Platygaster tuberosula were exported from Canada to Western Montana every year from 2014 to 2018. Adults were released in wheat midge infested fields at several locations of Golden Triangle, Montana, in 2014. From 2015-2017, adults were regularly monitored in several locations. Surveys showed that this parasitoid species is now well established in Golden Triangle, Montana. Two wheat midge parasitoids (Euxestonotus error and Platygaster tuberosula) were exported from Canada to Western Montana in 2015 to 2018. About 100 adults of each species were released in wheat midge infested fields of Valier Montana. Parasitoids monitoring and establishment studies will be conducted accordingly in future. Foreign exploration was initiated for Euwallacea whitfordiodendrus (Polyphagous Shot Hole Borer) and E.kuroshio (Kuroshio Shot Hole Borer). Objective 3.  Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. Descriptions are underway with USDA and Italian taxonomists of Drosophila suzukii parasitoids Asobara spp., Leptopilina japonica and Ganaspis brasiliensis. The same team is working on a description of Anagrus spp. collected in vineyards.  Research continues on parasites of the imported fire ant (Solenopsis) in South America and of the Little Red Fire Ant (Wasmannia) in the Caribbean and Central America. Both standard Sanger-sequencing approaches, as well as novel anchored enrichment approaches to look at relationships and species identification across the entire genus are being used. In a larger phylogenetic analysis of the subfamily Oraseminae, results support an ancestral association with the genus Pheidole, followed by an ancient shift to the New World and diversification onto a wider variety of ant hosts, including Solenopsis, Wasmannia and other myrmicine ant hosts.  Systematics research continues on leafminer parasitoids of the Citrus leafminer and the Citrus Peelminer.  Studies are focused on a revision of the Zagrammosoma on a worldwide basis.  Research is underway to develop a molecular phylogeny for the Mymaridae.  Research is utilizing three different molecular approaches to look at congruence of results and the proposal of a new classification for the group.  The NSF grant to revise the classification of the entire Chalcidoidea continues. This is a huge undertaking that involves molecular, morphological and bioinformatic approaches to resolve relationships of the superfamily, and to disseminate information on the group through electronic resources and a new book that outlines the classification and biology of the group. To date we have obtained nexgen sequencing data for over 600 taxa that cover the breadth of the entire superfamily.  The systematics for the Euwallacea fornicatus species complex have been clarified, the polyphagous shot hole borer and the Kuroshio shot hole borer have received scientific names and can be distinguished in part on morphology, and completely when COI sequences are used.  Objective 4.  Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. In collaboration with researchers at USDA, Italy, Oregon State University and colleagues in China and South Korea, researchers imported 8 parasitoid species that attack the spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii). These parasitoids included at least three larval parasitoids Asobara spp. , Leptopilina japonica and Ganaspis brasiliensis, and two pupal parasitoids, Pachycrepoideus vindimiae, Trichopria drosophilae. This material is currently being studied in quarantine. In collaboration with the CDFA and USDA Biological Control Laboratory release efforts were continued with Psyttalia lounsburyi against the olive fruit fly in different regions of California and the evaluation of Psyttalia ponerophaga. In collaboration with the CDFA and USDA Biological Control Laboratory quarantine studies were continued for Psyllaphaegus spp. attacking olive psyllid. Host range and host specificity studies for the BMSB egg parasitoid, Trissolcus japonicus were completed in quarantine at UC Riverside. Data are still being analyzed, but preliminary results suggest that T. japonicus is polyphagous and it can develop on the eggs of several non-target species. However, attack and emergence rates tend to be somewhat greater on the target BMSB.  A shipment of roots infested with Oporopsamma wertheimsteini was received in 2018. A study to determine the impact on rush skeletonweed at differing larval densities has been set-up. An impact study was conducted on Krigia biflora.  Larvae were transferred to test plants and plants were harvested after 60 days. No significant development of Oporopsamma larvae were observed and no significant differences were observed in plant biomass or in number of flowers between infested and non-infested control plants  Objective 5.  Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies.  Many releases and redistributions of natural enemies (millions) were carried out against pests in 2018. Examples include follow.  No Oberea erythrocephala were found at any of the 2017 release sites in New Mexico.  Collections of about 20,000 Aphthona spp. (primarily A. lacertosa) were made for redistribution from the Tusas insectary.  About 15,000 of these beetles were released on patches of spurge ranging from 6 to 54 ft in diameter using an inundative release strategy that has successfully controlled small patches.  Although a few Aphthona beetles were found using sweep nets, 5,000 additional beetles were released to supplement the new 2017 sites in Abiquiu.   We established sites and released two new biological control agents on toadflaxes in NM.  100 Mecinus janthiniformis were released at each of two sites in Rio Arriba County, NM in June 2018 and 100 Mecinus janthinus were released on Yellow toadflax at each of five sites in Colfax County in May 2018.  Russian knapweed was transplanted from three major field sites into greenhouses and planted in garden beds inside cages. The gall midge, Jaapiella ivannikovi, was encouraged to colonize the greenhouse plants.  These midges are being used to test the response of the midge to organic volatile compounds produced by Russian knapweed.  All available newly growing Russian knapweed is readily attacked and galled by the midges in the cages.   Several field insectaries of J. ivannikovi were successfully established in New Mexico that only seems to produce early summer galls.  Work continues to establish field insectaries in four additional New Mexico counties.   The drought in much of New Mexico is slowing the success and expansion of new insectaries.   Aulacidea acroptilonica is established in Rio Arriba County.  The population has doubled in area and exponentially increased the number of galled stems since last year.  An additional 3,000 adult wasps from Montana were released in 2018.   Over 165,000 Aulacidea acroptilonica adults were reared from galls for redistribution against Russian knapweed. The majority of wasps were sent to county, federal, and state cooperators in four counties in Montana. Consignments were also made to New Mexico State University, the University of Wyoming and the Nez Perce Biocontrol Center.  Approximately 2,400 galls of Jaapiella ivannikovi were released in Montana or consigned to the Nez Perce Biocontrol Center.  Coconut Rhinoceros Beetles (CRB) invading Guam, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands are genetically different from other populations of this pest, are resistant to Oryctes nudivirus, and behave differently. For these reasons, they are referred to as the "the Guam Biotype" CRB-G.  Ongoing testing of 30 O. nudivirus strains collected from the Philippines in 2017 has revealed a single strain that shows virulence to CRB-G.  This strain was purified in New Zealand, and was subsequently sent to Guam where it was released during the Fall of 2017 using infected CRB as vectors.  Results of this release have revealed no virulence of any of the cultured strains of O. nudivurus to CRB on Guam.  Anagrus daanei was introduced into the North Coast of California in 2015-2017, with mixed results. Molecular evaluations of the A. daanei in the North Coast and Sacramento Valley to are being conducted to determine if they are different strains or species. Previous work revealed that Anagrus epos was a complex of three species. Something similar may be happening with A. daanei.  Objective 6.  Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions.  Photoperiodic responses were reevaluated for diapause induction in three populations (Manhattan KS, Ithaca NY, Manitoba, Canada) of Chrysopa oculata, a predator of aphids and other soft-bodied pests. Hypotheses were that (1) mean temperatures and / or the variation in annual temperatures have increased at both localities as a result of changes in climate, and (2) C. oculata populations at all localities have made corresponding changes in their diapause-inducing photoperiodic responses. These hypotheses are based on the prediction that insect populations should respond to environmental changes in temperature by altering their schedules of seasonal activity and dormancy, and it is assumed that local temperatures had likely changed in the intervening 30 years, based on global trends. Indeed, results showed that the patterns of diapause have changed for at least two of the populations. The critical photoperiod is still the same as it was 30 years ago and all of the change is clustered in the upper and lower tails of the diapause curve. With the population from New York, there has been a shift in the critical photoperiod such that half of the population is entering diapause about two weeks later in the autumn than was the case 30 years ago. This is suggestive of a shift toward warmer autumns, allowing lacewings more time for reproduction and growth in the late summer and early autumn.  Russian knapweed: Eight sites were monitored for the gall midge and wasp, as well as plant density and cover. In general, populations of the gall midge, Jaapiella ivannikovi, were slightly greater this year probably due to the wet weather during the spring. In contrast populations of the gall wasp Aulacidea acroptilonica, were variable.  Studies in Utah were completed indicating that biological control was not substantially compromised by any significant lag in natural enemies versus their host pests in colonizing short-lived field crops.  Parasitism of cereal leaf beetle and alfalfa weevil larvae by the introduced, host-specific parasitoids Tetrastichus julis and Bathyplectes curculionis, respectively, did not vary significantly with increasing distance (up to hundreds of meters) into newly planted fields. Thus, neither the cereal leaf beetle nor the alfalfa weevil initially gained substantial spatial refuge from parasitism by more strongly dispersing than their specialist natural enemies into newly created habitat.  Manipulative experiments were used to examine the impacts of the toadflax stem weevil M. janthinus on yellows toadflax performance. When caged onto single plants two, six or 10 pairs of weevils significantly reduced root biomass. Weevils did not appear to effect above ground biomass during the season they attacked.  Flight and fecundity have been studied as a new means of measuring diapause induction of individuals of the species Diorhabda carinulata, a biological control agent of Tamarisk. Over 1000 beetles have had phenotypic measurements taken, and they are being sent to collaborators for genotyping.  Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests.  Objective 7.  Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. A three-year research and extension study has been collaboratively ongoing to improve biological control of the Virginia creeper leafhopper, including better understanding the alternate leafhopper hosts and the plants that support these leafhopper populations. Work on Asian citrus psyllid biological control has clearly demonstrated the negative impacts the invasive Argentine ant (AA) has on the parasitoid Tamarixia radiata and some generalist predators. Controlling AA with liquid baits significantly increases parasitism rates and predator densities in citrus. Consequently, pest infestations of citrus flush, branches, and fruit dropped significantly in comparison to untreated control blocks. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to use biodegradable hydrogel beads instead of plastic bait stations for AA control and three applications of gels applied to the orchard floor under trees spaced 2 weeks apart reduces AA densities by 85% in comparison to untreated controls. This level of suppression is comparable to applying chlorpyrifos to the orchard floor and tree trunks to kill foraging AA. The strength of the hydrogels in comparison to sprays of broad-spectrum contact insecticides is that liquid baits kill subterranean queens and brood and there are no lethal residues or drift that kills natural enemies.  Research on citrus peelminer and citrus leafminer has involved assistance with the identification of parasitoids from field studies in California and central Mexico.  The longevity and fecundity has been studied of two key parasitoids, Anagrus erythroneurae and Anagrus daanei of leafhopper pests in California grapes (grape leafhopper, variegated leafhopper, and Virginia creeper leafhopper).  Objective 8.  Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Drought seems to be the limiting factor for the successful expansion of the gall midge, Jaapiella ivannikovi. Populations of gall midges were followed through an extended drought during 2018.  In 2017, thousands of galls were present in NM insectaries and by the end of 2018 populations were difficult to find.  Researchers continued to survey invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands.  This activity is part of an ongoing USDA-APHIS-CAPS funded project on the surveillance of Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and the CNMI.  A related study seeks to describe attendance behavior of Guam’s invasive ants towards aphids, scales and mealybugs commonly encountered in the Marianas, and the effects this might have on biological control agents against hemipteran plant pests.  Studies were initiated to examine non-target effects (primarily on heteropteran predators) of Bt cotton, targeting plant bugs and thrips using natural enemy community sampling and life tables to assess impacts on biological control of whiteflies.  A two-year field study demonstrated no non-target impacts of Bt eggplant on arthropod natural enemies in Bangladesh. Bt eggplants provided high levels of target pest control with significant economic gains.  Field studies were initiated to examine non-target impacts of several new putatively selective insecticides on arthropod natural enemies of whitefly in cotton. Life tables measured direct impacts on biological control services. Plot size was varied to determine optimal plot size for non-target evaluations).  Studies are working to characterize a community of RNA viruses that infect the predatory bug Geocoris pallens to determine which, if any, are virulent and might be associated with increased expression of cannibalism in G. pallens populations.  Farmer data was used to determine which insecticides currently used in citrus pest management are most disruptive to Euseius tularensis predatory mite populations, thereby interfering with biological control of either citrus red mite or citrus thrips.  Results gave farmers recommendations for which materials to use to retain their key biocontrol agents within their groves.  Objective 9.  Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity.  Research is ongoing on the effect of ground covers in pistachios and whether these harbor pest insects (primarily hemipterans) or their natural enemies. Completed work has demonstrated that conservation biological control of Asian citrus psyllid natural enemies significantly increases predator activity towards colonies of immature ACP. Provisionment of flowering plants, especially alyssum, recruits and retains adult hover flies. These highly vagile adults lay eggs on ACP patches and larvae are voracious predators of ACP nymphs. In citrus orchards, ACP mortality from larval hover fly predation is significantly greater in the vicinity of alyssum when compared to control plots lacking this cover crop.  We analyzed data from our experiment at the University of Wyoming Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Center to test whether the diversity and presence of cover crops interseeded into standing corn impacts the activity-density and diversity of ground beetles. Producers are interested in this practice to increase forage available for grazing cattle, but we have limited research available to predict how it will impact other parts of the ecosystem. We found that carabid activity-density did not change in response to the presence of cover crops or the type of cover crop planted, which may have partially been due to vegetative cover provided by weeds in the field.  Research has been conducted to evaluate the attractiveness of various annual and perennial flowering plants to pollinators and natural enemies. Results from this work will be used to select suitable plants to include in habitat plantings associated with saffron to combat bulb mites. Field beds of saffron have been established at the University of Vermont Horticultural Research Center. This site will serve as the location for planting habitat bands of annual and perennial flowering plants in 2019. These plantings will serve as attractive environments for pollinators and natural enemies that could contribute to reducing bulb mite populations.  Studies demonstrated effective conservation biocontrol of macadamia felted coccid by means of cultural management of orchard canopies. Researchers also identified insect pathogenic fungi that may contribute to macadamia felted coccid suppression.  Goal C:  Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy.  Objective 10.  Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies.  Significant progress was made on the temperature requirements for the development of two Asian citrus psyllid parasitoids, Tamarixia radiata and Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis, and one of their hyperparasitoids, Psyllaphycus diaphorinae. These studies compared developmental rates across multiple temperatures when experimental temperatures were either held constant for 24 hr or set to fluctuate over a 24 hr period to give an average temperature equal to the constant 24 hr temperature setting. Programmable temperature cabinets were used for these studies and temperature cycles were modeled on temperature fluctuations downloaded from weather stations. Non-linear model fits demonstrated that developmental rates, estimates for minimum, optimal, and upper lethal temperatures, and degree-day accumulations for development, and adult parasitoid longevity are significantly affected by mean temperature and the associated exposure regimen (i.e., constant vs. fluctuating). These data have significant value for modeling parasitoid establishment and impacts in varying geographic locations with significantly different climatic conditions.  A project has been initiated characterizing the volatile organic compounds from Russian knapweed and determining which bioactive compounds influence the behavior of adult gall midges.   An in vitro assay has been developed and tested to evaluate the activation of entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) infective juveniles when exposed to different host insect tissue. Studies evaluated the degree to which activation correlated with the virulence of the EPN species against a variety of insect hosts including beneficial and pest arthropods. This assay may be useful in screening the potential efficacy of EPNs against certain arthropod pests  Objective 11.  Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility.  Results have been reported under other objectives, but a few specific examples from 2018 follow.  Cold storage of the Drosophila suzukii parasitoids Pachycrepoideus vindimiae (Pteromalidae), Trichopria drosophilae (Diapriidae) was studied in order to improve mass production. Wasps in the genus Trichogramma, because of their ability to control a wide range of Lepidoptera, are probably the most widely produced and released beneficial insect.  The parasitoids are most commonly produced on eggs of the Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia kuehniella.  Efficient rearing of Trichogramma spp. depends on the quality of host eggs that can affect the acceptance of eggs for parasitism by female wasps, growth and development of the parasitoids, and the quality and sex ratio of the parasitoid progeny.  It was determined that E. kuehniella produced significantly larger eggs when the larvae were fed a nutritionally enhanced diet versus adequate or minimal diets, and T. brassicae oviposited more eggs on the larger host eggs.  Emergence of wasps was equivalent from E. kuehniella eggs regardless of size; however, more female wasps were produced from the larger eggs.  Continued experiments on means to condition Trichogramma species released augmentatively, to search in atypicalhabitats.  Studies also demonstrated efficacy of Beauveria bassiana in coffee berry borer management.  Objective 12.  Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies.  Many results have been reported under other objectives.  A few examples follow: Collaborative studies on a three-year research and extension study to improve biological control of the Virginia creeper leafhopper, including the augmentative release of Anagrus spp. to help suppress leafhopper pests in vineyards continue. In collaboration with researchers at USDA, a project has released two pupal parasitoids, Pachycrepoideus vindimiae and Trichopria drosophilae  near blue berry and strawberry fields to ‘inoculate’ these resident parasitoids before and after the harvest cycle.  The first critical step for a successful augmentation program is to identify the pest organism. Researchers located an infestation of bulb mites in saffron grown in a high tunnel in Vermont. Three different species of bulb mites were identified. They were Rhizoglyphus robini, Sancassania anomala and Carpoglyphus lactis. To assess the suitability of an augmentative release program using a soil dwelling predatory insect, it was necessary to establish a lab colony of the target pest. A rearing method using potato dextrose agar (PDA) was evaluated. PDA was tested alone, PDA with an antibiotic and PDA with an antibiotic and a fungicide. Bulb mites grew best on PDA with an antibiotic. Specifically when 12 mites were placed in a Petri dish with PDA and an antibiotic, within 2 weeks the population increased to 135 mites, an 11-fold increase. Populations decreased in weeks 3 and 4. The reason for the rapid decrease is under investigation. The ultimate goal is to maintain a culture of the mites for test purposes.  Studies determined the effect of host feeding on the egg laying by the Asian Citrus Psyllid parasitoid Tamarixia radiata.  Researchers released M. janthinus at 7 sites in Colorado against toadflax, and the weevils have established at each site. Of two field releases of R. linariae, evidence was obtained that one release resulted in establishment.  Goal D:  Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control.  Objective 13.  Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents.  Many results have been reported under other objectives.  One example follows: Studies are in the process of identifying populations of Diorhabda with hybrid beetles against toadflax. Researchers sampled potential populations twice and have genotyped the beetles. They have also initiated growth of plants for testing, focusing on two species related to Tamarix, one a native plant and one an ornamental.  Objective 14.  Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. During 2018, the one laboratory presented at 32 research or grower-oriented programs to reach an estimated audience of about 3000 persons (estimated at 100 persons per presentation) Over this review period 25 extension talks were given on Asian citrus psyllid biocontrol, management of invasive ants for enhancing biocontrol in citrus, conservation biocontrol of natural enemies in the citrus ecosystem, biological control of avocado pests, and biological control of brown marmorated stink bug. Two field workshops on citrus pest biocontrol and biocontrol of invasive pests in California were organized in this review period. Three web pages were developed on biocontrol of Asian citrus psyllid. As part of an NSF project modules were developed that explain parasitoids to high school students, Master Gardeners and other venues (http://outreach.chalcid.org/). The approach is to teach more upper-division students or adults about the importance of parasitoids in biological control. More outreach materials is being developed to teach about chalcidoids and other parasitic Hymenoptera in the classroom. The idea is to develop independent modules for classrooms centered on yellow pan trap ‘observatories’ as a means to discuss ‘true’ biodiversity. Ideas for outreach are being vetted through a broad group of local teachers, and extension researchers at UC Riverside and Texas A&M University.  The annual USDA-APHIS-PPQ workshop held in Guam in March resumed in March 2018 without SPC participation.  It is hoped SPC's financial situation will ameliorate and allow their future participation and financial support for the PPQ workshops in the future. Media coverage of research in Montana is summarized below: Traders Dispatch: Valuable information shared at regional biological control meeting held in Montana. November 2018. Independent Observer: Biological control in plant pest management systems annual meeting. November 01, 2018. Prairie Star: Western Triangle hosts several MSU breeders, crop researchers at field days. July 26, 2018. Traders Dispatch: A focused effort to manage wireworms in the Golden Triangle Area of Montana. July 2018. The Prairie Star: What treatments best control economically-damaging canola insect pests? June 8, 2018. Traders Dispatch: <a href="http://agresearch.montana.edu/wtarc/fielddays-pdf/2018TradersDisptach2.pdf">Insect pathogenic nematodes for the management of wireworms</a>. January 2018.

Publications

Alonso V., Nasrolahi S., & Dillman A.R. (2018) Host-specific activation of entomopathogenic nematode infective juveniles. Insects 9(2): 59 DOI: 10.3390/insects9020059. Andersen, J.C. and Mills, N.J. 2018. Comparative genetics of invasive populations of walnut aphid, Chromaphis juglandicola, and its introduced parasitoid, Trioxys pallidus, in California. Ecology and Evolution 8: 801-811. Briar, S., F. Antwi, G. Shrestha, A. Sharma and G.V.P. Reddy. 2018. Potential biopesticides for crucifer flea beetle, Phyllotreta cruciferae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) management under dryland canola production in Montana. Phytoparasitica 47: 247–254. Burks, R.A., Heraty, J.M., Dominguez, C. J. Mottern. 2018. Complex diversity in a mainly tropical group of ant parasitoids: Revision of the Orasema stramineipes species group (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Eucharitidae). Zootaxa 44: 107 pp. Burks, R.A., Krogmann, L., J.M. Heraty. 2018. Simultaneous discovery and taxonomic placement of new extant and fossil genera of Herbertiinae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae). Insect Systematics and Diversity 2: 1–7. doi: 10.1093/isd/ixy012 Coelho A, Stouthamer R, Parra JRP (2018) Flight propensity of isofemale lines of Trichogramma pretiosum Riley in two relative humidity levels. Florida Entomologist 101 (3), 364-368 Cooper, M. L., Daugherty, M. P., Jeske, D. R., Almeida, R. P. P. Daane, K. M. 2018. Incidence of grapevine leafroll disease: effects of grape mealybug (Pseudococcus maritimus) abundance and pathogen supply. Journal of Economic Entomology 111(4): 1542–1550. doi: 10.1093/jee/toy124 Daane, K. M., Hogg, B. N., Wilson, H., and Yokota, G. Y. 2018. Native grass ground covers in California vineyards provide multiple ecosystem services. Journal of Applied Ecology 55: 2473–2483. DOI:10.1111/1365-2664.13145 Daane, K. M., Middleton, M. C., Sforza, R. F. H., Kamps-Hughes, N., Watson, G. W., Almeida, R. P. P., Correa, M. C. G., Downie, D. A., and Walton, V. M. 2018. Determining the geographic origin of invasive populations of the mealybug Planococcus ficus based on molecular genetic analysis. PLoS One 13(3): e0193852. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193852 Daane, K. M., Vincent, C., Isaacs, R., and Ioriatti, C. 2018. Entomological opportunities and challenges for sustainable viticulture in a global market. Annual Review of Entomology 63: 193-214. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-010715-023547 Dalton, D. T., Hilton, R. J., Kaiser, C., Daane, K. M., Sudarshana, M. R., Vo, J., Zalom, F. G., Buser, J. Z., and Walton, V. M. 2018. Grapevine red blotch virus spread and associative mapping of Grapevine leafroll associated virus-3 in Oregon vineyards. Plant Disease (in press) Edwards, C., J. A. Rosenheim, and M. Segoli.  2018.  Aggregating fields of annual crops to form larger-scale monocultures can suppress dispersal-limited herbivores.  Theoretical Ecology 11:321-331. Endriss, SB, C Alba, AP Norton, P Py&scaron;ek, RA Hufbauer. 2018. Breakdown of a geographic cline explains high performance of introduced populations of a weedy invader. Journal of Ecology. 106:699-713 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.12845 Evans, E.W.  2018.  Dispersal in host-parasitoid interactions: crop colonization by pests and specialist enemies.  Insects 9(4), article 134: 1-14. [online publication doi:10.3390/insects9040134] Freedman, M.G., R.H. Miller, and H.S. Rogers. 2018.  Landscape-level bird loss increases the prevalence of honey-dew-producing insects and non-native ants.  Oecologia, (OECO-D-18-00198R1).   Gebiola M, Gomes-Marco F, Simmons G, Stouthamer R (2018). Effect of host feeding on life history traits of Tamarixia radiata, parasitoid of the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri. BioControl DOI 1007/s10526-018-9903-7 Gomez DF, Skelton J, Steininger MS, Stouthamer R, Rugman-Jones PF, Sittichaya W,  Rabaglia RJ, Hulcr J. 2018. Species delineation within the Euwallacea fornicatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) complex revealed by morphometric and phylogenetic analyses. Insect Systematics and Diversity 2 doi.org/10.1093/isd/ixy018 Greco, E., Wright, M.G., Burgueno, J., & Jaronski, S. 2018. Efficacy of Beauveria bassiana applications on coffee berry borer across an elevation gradient in Hawaii. Biocontrol Science & Technology https://doi.org/10.1080/09583157.2018.1493088 Gutierrez-Coarite, R., Heller, W.P., Wright, M.G., Mollinedo, J., Keith, L., Sugiyama, L, & Chun, S. 2018. Entomopathogenic fungi as mortality factors of macadamia felted coccid (Eriococcus ironsidei) in Hawaii. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 50: 9-16. Gutierrez-Coarite, R., Mollinedo, J, Cho, A., Wright, M.G. 2018. Canopy management of macadamia trees and understory plant diversification to reduce macadamia felted coccid (Eriococcus ironsidei) populations. Crop Protection 113: 75-83. Gutierrez-Coarite, R., Yoneishi, N., Mollinedo, J., Pulakkattu-thodi, I., Wright, M.G., & Geib, S. PCR-based gut content analysis to detect predation of Eriococcus ironsidei (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae) by Coccinellidae species in macadamia nut orchards in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy019. Haider Prodhan, Md. Z., Hasan, Md. T., Islam Chowdhury, Md. M., Alam, Md. S., Rahman, Md. L., Azad, K.A., Hossain, Md. J., Naranjo, S.E., Shelton, A.M. Bt eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) in Bangladesh: Fruit production and control of eggplant fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee), effects on non-target arthropods and economic returns. PLoS One (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205713). Heraty, J.M., Burks, R.A., Mbanyana, N., van Noort, S. 2018. Morphology and life history of an ant parasitoid, Psilocharis afra (Hymenoptera: Eucharitidae). Zootaxa: 4482: 491–510. Hoddle, M.S. K. Mace, J. Steggall. 2018. Proactive biological control: a cost-effective management option for invasive species. California Agriculture 72: 148-150,    https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.2018a0027   Hogg, B. N., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Aerial dispersal ability as a driver of spider success in a crop landscape. Ecological Entomology 43: 683–694. doi.org/10.1111/een.12641 Hogg, B. N., Nelson, E. H., Hagler, J. R., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Foraging distance of the Argentine ant relative to effectiveness of a liquid bait control strategy. Journal of Economic Entomology 111(2): 672–679. doi: 10.1093/jee/tox366 Honěk, A., Martinkova, Z., Evans, E. W., and Skuhrovic, J.  2017.  Estimating prey consumption in natural populations of Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) using production of feces.  Journal of Economic Entomology 110: 2406-2412. Ingels, C. A., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Phenology of brown marmorated stink bug and trap and lure studies in a California urban landscape. Journal of Economic Entomology 111(2): 780–786. doi: 10.1093/jee/tox361 Irvin, N.A., J.R. Hagler, and M.S. Hoddle. 2018. Measuring natural enemy dispersal from cover crops in a California vineyard. Biological Control 126: 15-25.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2018.07.008    Ivezic A, Rugman-Jones P, Stouthamer R, Ignjatovic-Cupin A (2018) Molecular identification of Trichogramma egg parasitoids of Ostrinia nubilalis in northeastern Serbia. Archives of Biological Sciences 70: 425-432. DOI: 10.2298/ABS171103002I Jalali, M. A., Sakaki, S., Ziaaddini, M., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Temperature-dependent development of Oenopia conglobata (Col.: Coccinellidae) fed on Aphis gossypii (Hem.: Aphididae). International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 38(4): 410-417. Jan&scaron;ta, P., Cruaud, A., Delvare, G., Genson, G., Heraty, J., Krízková, B., Rasplus, R.-Y. 2018. 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Alternatives to a synthetic pyrethroid for controlling Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), on Coleus Cuttings. Florida Entomologist. 101: 389-394. Livingston, G., L. Hack, K. Steinmann, E. E. Grafton-Cardwell, and J. A. Rosenheim.  2018.  An ecoinformatics approach to field scale evaluation of pesticide efficacy and hazards in California citrus.  Journal of Economic Entomology 111:1290-1297. McEvoy, P. B. 2018. Theoretical contributions to biological control success. BioControl 63:87-103. Mills, N.J. 2018. An alternative perspective for the theory of biological control. Insects 9(4): 131. Mills, N.J. 2018. Plant Health Management: Biological Control of Insect Pests. Reference Module in Food Science. Elsevier, pp. 1–13. Mills, N.J. and Heimpel, G.E. 2018. Could increased understanding of foraging behavior help to predict the success of biological control? Current Opinion in Insect Science 27: 26–31. Milosavljević I., H.A.F. EL-Shafie, J.R. 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A simple approach to evaluate behavioral responses of insect herbivores to olfactory and visual cues simultaneously: the double stacked y-tube device and portable volatile collection system.  Arthro. Plnt. Inter. (online first) https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-018-9663-4 Park, I. and D.C. Thompson. 2018. Unisexual broods of Asphodylia species in new floral bud galls on mesquite in New Mexico. Southwest. Entomol. 43:585-589. Park, I., S.D. Eigenbrode, S. Cook, H.L. Hinz, U. Schaffner, and M. Schwarzländer. 2018. Examining olfactory and visual cues governing host-specificity of a weed biological control candidate species to refine pre-release risk assessment. BioControl Special Issue: Biological Control of Weeds 63: 337-389. Pearse IS, Paul R, Ode PJ. 2018. Variation in plant defense suppresses herbivore performance Current Biology 28: 1981-1986. Pellissier, M.E. and Jabbour, R. 2018. Herbivore and parasitoid insects respond differently to annual and perennial floral strips in an alfalfa ecosystem. Biological Control 123: 28-35. Peters, R.S., Niehuis, O., Gunkel, S., Bläser, M., Mayer, C., Podsiadlowski, L., Kozlov, A., Donath, A., van Noort, S. Liu, S., Zhou, X., Misof, M., Heraty, J., Krogmann, L. 2018. Transcriptome sequence-based phylogeny of chalcidoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) reveals a history of rapid radiations, convergence, and evolutionary success. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 120: 286–296. Portman, S.L., S.T. Jaronski, D.K. Weaver and G.V.P. Reddy. 2018. Advancing biological control of the wheat stem sawfly: New strategies in a 100 year struggle to manage a costly pest in the Northern Great Plains. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 111: 85–91. <ol> <li>Santander, K. Gasic, C.Meredith, Z, Pavlovic, S. G. 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Field efficacy of Bacillus thuringiensis galleriae strain SDS-502 for the management of alfalfa weevil and its impact on Bathyplectes spp. parasitization rate. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 153: 6–11. Shrestha, G., S.S. Briar, G.V.P. Reddy. 2018. Plant defense elicitors: plant fitness versus wheat stem sawfly. PeerJ 6:e5892; doi: 10.7717/peerj.5892. Spina, La, M., Pickett, C. H., Daane, K. M., Hoelmer, K. A., Blanchet, A., and Williams III, L. 2018. Effect of exposure time on mass-rearing production of the olive fruit fly parasitoid, Psyttalia lounsburyi (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Journal of Applied Entomology 142: 319-326. DOI: 10.1111/jen.12478/full Szűcs, M, P Salerno, B. Teller, U. Schaffner, J. Littlefield, RA Hufbauer. 2018. The effects of agent hybridization on the efficacy of biological control of tansy ragwort at high elevations. 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Impact Statements

Studies demonstrated effective conservation biocontrol of macadamia felted coccid by means of cultural management of orchard canopies. Researchers also identified insect pathogenic fungi that may contribute to macadamia felted coccid suppression.

Date of Annual Report: 01/10/2020

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 10/08/2019 - 10/09/2019
Period the Report Covers: 01/01/2019 - 12/31/2019

Participants

2. COOPERATING AGENCIES AND PRINCIPAL LEADERS:
• Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, Department of Entomology: Martha S. Hunter (mhunter@ag.arizona.edu), Peter Ellsworth (peterell@ag.arizona.edu).
• California Department of Food & Agriculture: Charles Pickett (cpickett@cdfa.ca.gov), Michael J. Pitcairn (mpitcairn@cdfa.ca.gov).
• California Experiment Station, University of California, Berkeley: Kent M. Daane (kdaane@ucanr.edu), Nicholas J. Mills (nmills@berkeley.edu), George Roderick (Roderick@berkeley.edu); UC-Davis, Jay A. Rosenheim (jarosenheim@ucdavis.edu); UC-Riverside: Adler Dillman (adlerd@ucr.edu), John M. Heraty (john.heraty@ucr.edu), Mark Hoddle (mark.hoddle@ucr.edu), Timothy Paine (timothy.paine@ucr.edu), Richard Stouthamer (Richard.stouthamer@ucr.edu), Christiane Weirauch (christiane.weirauch@ucr.edu), Wilson, Houston (Houston.wilson@ucr.edu).

• Colorado Experiment Station, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Dept. of Bioagricultural Sciences & Pest Management: Ruth Hufbauer (hufbauer@lamar.colostate.edu), Andrew Norton (Andrew.norton@colostate.edu), Paul Ode (paul.ode@colostate.edu).

• Florida Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida:
Norman C. Leppla (ncleppa@ufl.edu).

• Guam Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Guam, Mangilao: Ross H. Miller (rmiller@uog.edu).

• Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, Manoa, Department of Plant & Environmental Protection Sciences: Mark Wright (markwrig@hawaii.edu), Russell Messing (messing@hawaii.edu).

• Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow, Dept. of Plant, Soil and Entomological Sciences: Mark Schwarzlaender (markschw@uidaho.edu).

• Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, Purdue University, Dept. of Entomology: Laura Ingwell (lingwell@purdue.edu).

• Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Michigan State University, Dept. of Entomology, East Lansing, MI: Marianna Szucs (szucsmr@msu.edu)

• Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Minnesota, Department of Entomology, St. Paul, MN: George Heimpel (heimp001@umn.edu).

• Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, Montana State University: Western Agricultural Research Center: Jeffrey Littlefield (jeffreyl@montana.edu); Gadi Reddy (gadi.reddy@montana.edu).

• Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, Department of Entomology: John Ruberson (jruberson2@unl.edu).

• New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, New Mexico State University, Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Weed Science, Las Cruces: David C. Thompson (dathomps@nmsu.edu).

• New York: Cornell University, Agricultural Experiment Station: Srdjan Acimovic (SA979@cornell.edu).

• Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis: Peter B. McEvoy (mcevoyp@science.oregonstate.edu), Silvia Rondon (silvia.rondon@oregonstate.edu); John Lambrinos (john.lambrinos@oregonstate.edu), Joel Felix (joel.felix@oregonstate.edu), Paul Jepson (jepsonp@science.oregonstate.edu).

• United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Albany,
California: Patrick Moran (Patrick.moran@ars.usda.gov), Lincoln Smith (link.smith@ars.usda.gov).

• United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Arizona: Steve Naranjo (steve.naranjo@ars.usda.gov)

• Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, Logan, Department of Biology: Edward W. Evans (ted.evans@usu.edu).

• Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Vermont: Margaret Skinner (mskinner@uvm.edu).

• Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, Washington State University, Pullman, Department of Entomology: Jennifer Andreas (jandreas@wsu.edu); David Crowder (dcrowder@wsu.edu).

• Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, Dept. of Renewable Resources, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY: Tim Collier (tcollier@uwyo.edu); Randa Jabbour (rjabbour@uwyo.edu).

• Other: Association of Natural Biocontrol Producers, Lynn LeBeck (exdir@anbp.org).

Brief Summary of Minutes

Minutes Attachment:

2019 W4185 Program and Minutes.pdf

Accomplishments

ACCOMPLISHMENTS   These are only a selection of 2019 results.  This large, collaborative group works on OVER 140 different species of arthropod and weed pests.    Goal A:  Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies   Objective 1.  Survey indigenous natural enemies.   Surveys were conducted in 2019 for natural enemies of the following species:   Drosophila suzukii (spotted-winged drosophila):  A number of teams surveyed northern California sites for the larval and pupal parasitoids attacking the spotted wing drosophila.   Cytisus scoparius (Scotch broom): The dispersal of the adventive Scotch broom mite in California was examined. The mite is dispersing rapidly in northern California and climate modeling suggests it will continue to disperse on Scotch broom in this state, and is climatically suitable for parts of Scotch broom’s invasive range in Argentina, Australia and New Zealand.   Brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB):  A team surveyed northern California sites for the egg parasitoids attacking the brown marmorated stinkbug.  A UC-Riverside laboratory conducted extensive field surveys for native and introduced egg parasitoids of BMSB and has completed a survey for southern California (Los Angeles Basin). Survey methods included the deployment of frozen sentinel BMSB egg masses and subsequent collection of these eggs after a 3-4 day exposure period. Field exposed eggs are sent to CDFA for parasitoid rearing. The goal is to collect the self-introduced BMSB egg parasitoid, Trissolcus japonicus, which has been previously collected in the LA Basin by the Hoddle lab.   Coconut rhinoceros beetle:  University of Guam personnel traveled to Taiwan in May 2019 to receive 80 adult coconut rhinoceros beetles collected Taiwan Normal University. The Taiwan population is of special interest because specimens in a previous collection were all determined to be CRB-G and 80% of these tested positive for OrNV (virus).   Coffee berry borer:  Surveys for potential parasitoids of coffee berry borer, Hypothenemis hampei, present in Hawaii were conducted, revealing a diversity of species emerging from Scolytinae. A number of species including Phymastichus xylebori, and a number of potentially new species were found.   Light brown apple moth (LBAM):  Investigations continued on the distribution, abundance and parasitism of LBAM in California. Larval populations were found in landscape plantings from Santa Rosa to Rancho Santa Fe, but frequency of occurrence and abundance varied considerably between region and location. No larvae were found in landscape plantings that had been recently pruned. Larval and pupal parasitism were slightly lower in 2019 than previous years, but continued to be dominated by Meteorus ictericus, Nemorilla pyste and Pediobius ni.   Lepdium draba (hoary cress): Surveys were continued at 30 sites (15 in Montana; 15 in Colorado) for insect herbivores (both native and previously established introduced species) in preparation for evaluating effects of releasing the approved mite, Aceria drabae.    A research group coordinated a regional monitoring effort of Virginia creeper leafhopper (Erythroneura ziczac) in the North Coast region of California. This is an invasive insect that was introduced to California in the 1980s. It is primarily found in the Sacramento Valley and Sierra Foothills, but was recently introduced into the North Coast, where it has reached outbreak proportions due to a lack of biological control. The key parasitoid that controls E. ziczac is Anagrus daanei (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae). They surveyed the state in 2014 and identified a population of A. daanei in the Sacramento Valley that attacks VCLH. Releases were made in the North Coast between 2015-2017, with mixed results. They are continuing to monitor parasitism rates of VCLH today to see if the introduced parasitoids established, or if local populations of A. erythroneurae (endemic to the North Coast) may be adapting to the new leafhopper host.     Objective 2.  Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest.   Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year.  Many of these exploratory trips are only partially successful.  Species sent to quarantine facilities must survive the trip and reproduce.  Subsequent cultures will then be used for non-target host testing and evaluation for potential release.  Select studies follow.   With colleagues in Colombia and Brazil, an investigation assessing feasibility of classical biocontrol of R. palmarum (South American palm weevil) with a tachinid fly, Billaea rhynchophorae, was initiated. The goal is to determine whether or not it is possible to mass rear the fly and see if live flies can be exported out of Brazil to California for safety evaluations in quarantine.   Surveyed for natural enemies of insect pests (Bagrada hilaris, Pyrrhalta viburni, Phytomyza gymnostoma, Bactrocera oleae), and of weeds (Genista monspessulana, Vincetoxicum sp., Ailanthus altissima, Taeniatherum caput-medusae, and Ventenata dubia) in Europe and Asia.   Collecting occurred for:  Gryon sp, Trissolcus sp for biological control of Bagrada hilaris; Pteromalus sp. for Phytomyza gymnostoma; Aprostocetus sp. for Pyrrhalta viburni; Lepidapion argentatum for Genista monspessulana; Aculops mosoniensis for Ailanthus altissima; Tetramesa sp. for Taeniatherum caput-medusae; and Chrysochus asclepiadeus for Vincetoxicum sp.   Collecting continued for spotted wing drosophila to So. Korea and China to find and import larval parasitoids.  California Dept. of Food and Agriculture and the USDA Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL) continued importation of Psyllaphaegus spp. attacking the olive psyllid.  They also continued importation of Psyttalia ponerophaga and Psyttalia lounsburyi attacking the olive fruit fly.   Exploration is underway in South Africa for biocontrol agents of Guineagrass, Megathyrsus maximus.   A Diptacus sp. has been imported, tested and rejected.  Exploration is underway in Vietnam for agents of cattle fever tick, Rhipicephalus microplus and in Bulgaria for Rhipicephalus annalatus.     Objective 3.  Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies.   Results were published on the relationships of a group of parasitoids (Oraseminae) that are parasitic on ants in the Solenopsis, Pheidole, Wasmannia and other myrmicine ants. Results show Pheidole was the ancestral Old World host, and a single invasion of the New World occurred about 20 million years ago resulting in a massive diversification onto New World genera of myrmicine ants.  The lab also looked at a group of eulophids that attack leafminers including Citrus Leafminer and Citrus Peelminer. A new genus was recognized, Burkseus, that includes four species previously recognized as the single widespread species, Cirrospilus vitattus.   Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth): microsatellite loci were used to determine the genetic consequences of repeated introduction of the water hyacinth weevils Neochetina eichhorniae and Neochetina bruchi, including transfers from Florida to Texas and Texas to California during the biological control program in the U.S. Results demonstrated that the species hybridized in the U.S. as well as in Uganda and in the native range in Uruguay. Genetic drift and inbreeding have occurred in California, but number of beetles released did not significantly affect genetic diversity level.    One lab conducted phylogenetic analysis, species delineation and a taxonomic revision of the egg parasitoids (mainly Gryon gonikopalense) of Bagrada hilaris; a genetic comparison of the Pyrrhalta viburni parasitoids, such as Aprostocetus celtidis and A. suevius; they resolved the taxonomic status of parasitoids of Halyomorpha halys in Italy, leading to the species complex of Trissolcus japonicus and T. mitsukurii; conducted a taxonomic inventory of the European Chrloropidae on Arundo donax; conducted genetic fingerprinting of Trissolcus japonicus on Halyomorpha halys from Canada and USA; analyzed populations of Euphyllura olivina from Spain, France and California; and analyzed 26 invasive populations of Ventenata dubia using enzyme electrophoresis (allozymes).   A study with USDA and Italian taxonomists is working on the description of Drosophila suzukii parasitoids Asobara spp. (Braconidae), Leptopilina japonica and Ganaspis brasiliensis (Figitidae). They are also working closely with a UC Riverside taxonomist on the description of Anagrus spp. collected in vineyards.   Invasive Texas Guineagrass has been found to match with populations near Durban, South Africa.  Systematic research has also shown that Cattle Fever Ticks populations in Texas match with Vietnam (R. microplus) and Bulgaria (R. annalatus).   With collaborators in Argentina, a research group continued to research parasites of the imported fire ant (Solenopsis) in South America and of the Little Red Fire Ant (Wasmannia) in the Caribbean and Central America. In a larger phylogenetic analysis of the subfamily Oraseminae, results support an ancestral association with the ant genus Pheidole, followed by an ancient shift to the New World and diversification onto a wider variety of ant hosts, including Solenopsis, Wasmannia and other myrmicine ant hosts. They are currently working with an Argentinian researcher on the molecular and morphological recognition of ants attacking the Solenopsis saevissima complex, which includes the fire ant.   This researcher is also working on leafminer parasitoids. A graduate student is studying the taxonomy and relationships of the tribe Cirrospilini (Eulophidae), which include important parasitoids of the Citrus leafminer and the Citrus Peelminer. They published results on a group that provide a new genus name, Burskeus, that includes 4 new species. They recently completed a study of the genus Zagrammosoma, a group of 24 species that all attack leafmining Lepidoptera. Studies are trying to address the evolution of host breadth in the genus. In a final paper, they addressed the relationships of specie across the entire tribe and will be revising the genera to provide a better taxonomic framework for understanding the underlying pattern of host association and distribution.    More from this particular researcher who concentrates on systematics include the following projects. They continued a new research program on the genus Encarsia. The initial objectives are a revision of the Encarsia strenua species group and a molecular phylogeny of the entire genus. This research is being conducted by a graduate student.  Research is underway on developing a molecular phylogeny for the egg-parasitic Mymaridae.  This research is utilizing three different molecular approaches to look at congruence of results, and ultimately the proposal of a new classification for the group.  They continue work on a National Science Foundation grant to revise the classification of the entire superfamily Chalcidoidea. This is a massive undertaking that involves molecular, morphological and bioinformatic approaches to resolve the relationships of the superfamily, and to disseminate information on the group through electronic resources and a new book that outlines the classification and biology of the group. Members of this superfamily are among the most important natural and introduced control agents of other pest insects, and this will form a foundation for all future studies on the group. To date they obtained nexgen sequencing data for over 600 taxa that cover the breadth of the entire superfamily. The final results are in progress and they are working on an edited book to cover the entire superfamily. They are also taking a bioinformatic approach by developing a new database to house all of the taxonomic and biological information on the superfamily in TaxonWorks, which is based on a migration of data from the Universal Chalcidoidea database. This will manage data for more than 30,000 taxonomic names and over 50,000 literature references.   In addition to these projects, they regularly provide identifications of parasitoids that are directly related to biological projects worldwide. As well, more than 1000 specimens of Aphelinidae and other Chalcidoidea were curated and added to the Entomology Research Museum (UC-Riverside) collection of parasitic Hymenoptera.     Objective 4.  Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release.   Proactive screening of an egg parasitoid, Anastatus orientalis, a natural enemy of the invasive spotted lantern fly, is underway in quarantine at UC Riverside. The goal of this project is to have host range and host specificity tests completed for A. orientalis in advance of the anticipated invasion by L. delicatula into California.   In a study of a group of Aphelinus wasps that attack aphids, including the Russian Wheat aphid, researchers were able to demonstrate much localized host specificity that affect how we choose and establish effective parasitoids.   Summarized details follow on host specificity and environmental studies on various natural enemies under evaluation:   Bagrada hilaris (bagrada bug): The biology of the parasitic wasp, Gryon gonikopalense, was examined as the first candidate non-native biocontrol agent targeting bagrada bug. This parasite attacks bagrada bug eggs 1-4 days after ovipositiion and can complete its life cycle in about 25 days. Adults live about 66 days when fed honey.   Drosophila suzukii (spotted-wing drosphila): Thermal tolerance studies suggested that South Korean populations of two endoparasitoids, Ganaspis brasiliensis and Leptopilina japonica (Hymenoptera: Figitidae) were slightly more cold-tolerant that Chinese populations, and that low temperatures induced facultative diapause in both species from both countries.    Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth): Thermal tolerance studies in the USDA-ARS quarantine lab in Albany, CA of four accessions of the leaf and stem-feeding weevil Neochetina eichhorniae indicated that an Australian population was better-suited than a weakly-established California accession for freezing conditions typical of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of northern California.   Genista monspessulana (French broom): Quarantine lab host range studies found that the leaf-feeding psyllid Arytinnis hakani can develop and reproduce on three species of California native lupins under no-choice conditions.   Egeria densa (Brazilian waterweed): Host range studies of the candidate agent Hydrellia egeriae (Diptera: Ephydridae) found that larvae can develop on native Elodea canadensis (American pondweed), precluding further consideration for biocontrol.   Host specificity tests were conducted in open door experiments for Chrysochus asclepiadeus on Vincetoxicum   In collaboration with researchers at USDA, Italy, Oregon State University,  and colleagues in China and South Korea, a researcher imported 8 parasitoid species that attack the spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii). These parasitoids included at least three larval parasitoids Asobara spp. (Braconidae), Leptopilina japonica and Ganaspis brasiliensis (Figitidae), and two pupal parasitoids, Pachycrepoideus vindimiae (Pteromalidae), Trichopria drosophilae (Diapriidae). This material is currently being studied in Quarantine.  In collaboration with the California Dept. of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) and the USDA Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL) in France and their colleagues, they continued release efforts with Psyttalia lounsburyi (Braconidae) against the olive fruit fly in different regions of California and the evaluation of Psyttalia ponerophaga.  They also continued quarantine studies of Psyllaphaegus spp. attacking the olive psyllid.   Host range screening for Phymastichus coffea, an African parasitoid of Hypothenemus hampei is underway. Results to date show that P. coffea does not parasitize any native Scolytinae species, not any other Coleoptera other than H. obscurus, an introduced pest species. The host screening is almost completed.   Many natural enemies are being screened for potential release against weeds.  A few examples follow.   Rush skeletonweed: Chondrilla juncea.  A shipment of approximately 200 roots infested with the rush skeletonweed crown moth, Oporopsamma wertheimsteini was received from the BBCA in October 2019. However the shipment was delayed for one month and all moths had emerged. A few adults were still alive and laid eggs. These will be used for an impact study to determine the impact non-target plants that the moth larvae fed upon in no-choice tests.   Hawkweed: Pilosella spp.  Availability of an Environmental Assessment for the Release of Cheilosia urbana for Biological Control of Invasive Hawkweeds was published in the Federal Register May 28, 2019 for public comment. The Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) was signed by APHIS in July 2019 and published in the Federal Register September 24, 2019.  This lab plans to receive Cheilosia eggs from CABI in early spring 2020 for eventual field release.     Objective 5.  Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies.   Many releases and redistributions of natural enemies (millions) were carried out against pests in 2019. Examples follow.   One research group sent shipments to US cooperators of Gryon gonikopalense (647) for biological control of Bagrada hilaris.  They also sent shipments to US cooperators of Psyttalia lounsburyi (17,300) and P. ponerophaga (1,900) for biological control of Bactrocera oleae. In collaboration with the CDFA and the USDA EBCL and their colleagues, they continued release of P. lounsburyi against the olive fruit fly.   Releases were made by a Montana lab for the following two weeds. Russian knapweed:  this lab held two collection days at the end of September 2018 in which five agencies collect Aulacidea acroptilonica galls. An estimated 1 million galls were collected for redistribution. Emergence of adults from galls held outdoors in Bozeman was very low. Approximately 39,750 adult wasps were provided for field releases. These went to Ft Belknap and Flathead Indian Reservations (via APHIS) and to Gallatin and Broadwater Counties. Consignments were also made to New Mexico State University and the Nez Perce Biocontrol Center.  Hoarycress:  In May 2019 they collected galls of Aceria drabae in Greece (plus a collection by the BBCA) and hand carried them back to Montana to reinitiate a laboratory colony. Approximately 365 galls (from a previous colony) were used to inoculate plants at two field sites in Montana. Infested plants were observed at both sites. They will determine in spring of 2020 if the mite survived. The coconut rhinoceros beetles invading Guam (2007), Hawaii (2013), Papua New Guinea (2015), and Solomon Islands (2015) are genetically different from other populations of this pest, are resistant to Oryctes nudivirus, the biocontrol agent of choice for this species, and behave differently. For these reasons, they are being referred to as the "the Guam Biotype" CRB-G.   Results of ongoing releases of OrNV have revealed no virulence of any of the cultured strains of O. nudivurus to CRB on Guam.   Parasitoids were reared from Asian cycan scale (ACS) at collection sites throughout the island. All specimens appear to be Arhenophagus sp.   Anagrus daanei was introduced into the North Coast of California from 2015-2017, with mixed results. A lab is currently conducting molecular evaluations of the A. daanei in the North Coast and Sacramento Valley to determine if they are different strains or species. Previous work revealed that Anagrus epos was a complex of three species. Something similar may be happening with A. daanei.   Adventive populations of Trissolcus japonicus were discovered in Michigan in 2018, which is an exotic natural enemy of the invasive brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys). A laboratory rearing was initiated using field captured T. japonicus and in 2019 field releases were conducted to augment existing populations in Michigan. A total 4000 adult T. japonicus were released at 8 field sites in southwestern Michigan and 92 brown marmorated stink bug egg masses infested with T. japonicus were placed at additional 4 field sites.   Releases were conducted (including redistributions) of natural enemies for Russian knapweed.   Jaapiella ivannikovi (20 sites) and Aulacidea acroptilonica (8 sites) in the Arkansas Valley, San Luis Valley, and Gunnison Basin.        Objective 6.  Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions.   Arundo donax (Arundo): The shoot tip-galling wasp Tetramesa romana is widely established in the Lower Rio Grande Basin of Texas and Mexico, where it attains larger populations than in the native range in Mediterranean Europe. This difference is due primarily to higher degree-days in Texas. Lower degree-days in California may limit wasp population size. In a separate study, the root- and shoot-feeding arundo armored scale was found to be established at several release sites in Texas along the Rio Grande, and the combined presence of the wasp and scale reduced live arundo biomass by up to 55 percent compared to plots with only the wasp.   Tamarix spp. (Saltcedar): The distribution and dispersal of four species of leaf-seeding Diorhabda spp. beetles was evaluated in Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Kansas. Three beetle species (D. carinata, D. elongata and D. sublineata) were released in this region, and while initial D. carinulata releases failed, this species later dispersed into the region from other areas. The three former species have hybridized extensively, defoliated saltcedar over large areas of these states between 2005 and 2013, and dispersed hundreds of km from the original release sites. However, defoliation of saltcedar trees is now sporadic, and beetle populations are low or absent at many sites. A separate study in northern California found similar outcomes of release of D. elongata.   One research group did the following work.  They conducted an experiment to measure the interaction between a root-galling weevil, Ceutorhynchus assimilis, and a soil pathogen, Rhizoctonia sp., attacking the invasive weed, Lepidium draba; they improved knowledge on the seasonal life cycle of Lepidapion argentatum with 1 generation for the seedpod ecotype and 2 for the gall ecotype; exposed Chrysochus asclepiadeus in open field tests to non-target plants, milkweeds, with no herbivory impact observed; conducted a taxonomic revision of Chloropid flies on Arundo donax establishing 13 valid species from 500 specimens examined; tested populations of Psyttalia lonsburyi for Wolbacchia infection; and evaluated the virulence of Metarhizium anisopliae on Bactrocera oleae.   Extensive studies continue of Drosophila suzukii resident and imported natural enemies.   Studies in Utah were completed to evaluate the phenology and survivorship of immature stages of the stem-mining weevil Mecinus janthiniformis To&scaron;evski and Caldara (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) within stems of Dalmatian Toadflax (Linaria dalmatica [L.], Lamiales: Plantaginaceae).  Survivorship of immatures within stems was high, and most individuals had completed pupal development by early August.  Parasitism accounted for most mortality, with at least three parasitoid species (Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae and Eupelmidae) attacking weevil larvae within stems.  A research group at UC-Riverside is assessing the feasibility of using snail- and slug-parasitic nematodes in the genus Phasmarhabditis to control pest gastropods. Last year they conducted a survey of the natural enemies of pest gastropods in California and this year they have been assessing their potential in biological control against several pest grastropods, including an invasive white snail that is gaining ground in Southern California. They have also been investigating the potential use of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) to control the darkling beetle Alphitobius diapernus; they completed a trial assessing the virulence of Phasmarhabditis californica, P. hermaphrodita, P. papillosa, and Sluggo Plus, against Deroceras reticulatum (Slug pest) in a lath house experiment replicating nursery like conditions; they completed a trial assessing the amount of damage that D. reticulatum is able to cause to Canna cannova when treated with P. californica, P. hermaphrodita, P. papillosa, and Sluggo Plus in nursery like conditions which were simulated in a lath house; the assessed the virulence of P. californica, P. hermaphrodita, P. papillosa, and Sluggo Plus against Theba pisana (an invasive white snail expanding in Southern California) in a controlled environment setup in an incubator (submitted for publication; in revision at PLoS One); and completed two trials assessing the virulence of various EPN species to adult A. diapernus in lab conditions to identify promising biological control agents.   A classical biological control program against invasive black and pale swallow-worts (Vincetoxicum nigrum and Vincetoxicum rossicum) was initiated in Michigan using the biological control agent, Hypena opulenta. In 2019, this defoliating moth was reared in the laboratory at Michigan State University (MSU) to build up populations for field release, which are planned for 2020 summer. During 2019 common garden field experiments were used to evaluate the synchrony of H. opulenta phenology with the climate in Michigan and the impact of various release sizes on establishment success and efficacy.   Work continued on greenhouse and field cage studies of the interactions (facilitation and competition) between the two biocontrol agents, Jaapiella ivannikovi and Aulacidea acroptilonica, for control of Russian knapweed.   Studies continued on reciprocal, common garden experiments involving 15 Montana and 15 Colorado populations of hoary cress.  They are comparing growth architecture, flowering phenology, and susceptibility to herbivory in these 30 populations. They also continue to examine (with field and cage experiments) foraging behavior differences among C. glomerata populations that differ in their association with C. rubecula, the superior competitor (CO: no association for over 140 years; MD: co-exist in the same host populations), and these are agents for Pieris rapae.        Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests.   Objective 7.  Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions.   One lab assessed the occurrence and abundance of indigenous early egg parasitoids, Trissolcus japonicus and T. mitsukurii on Halyomorpha halys in Italy and they assessed the presence of Aculops moisonensis as a foliage herbivore on Ailanthus altissima in Italy.    In collaboration with UC Riverside, they are investigating the use of a unique irrigation system in pistachio to help trap and monitor stink bugs as well as increase the activity of their natural enemies.   Native ground dwelling predators of invasive cattle fever ticks are being investigated to determine which species have the greatest impact and how these predators are distributed in native vs. exotic grass dominated pastures.   Work on Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, biological control has clearly demonstrated the negative impacts the invasive Argentine ant (AA) has on the parasitoid Tamarixia radiata and some generalist predators. Controlling AA with liquid baits significantly increases parasitism rates and predator densities in citrus. Consequently, pest infestations of citrus flush, branches, and fruit drop significantly in comparison to untreated control blocks. Further, this group has demonstrated that it is possible to use biodegradable hydrogel beads for AA control. They are now moving into larger scale field trials with ant baits and combining infra-red sensors to monitor ant activity in orchards and to assess whether flowering cover crops enhance the impacts of generalist natural enemies in citrus orchards. Of particular interest are predatory syrphid flies which have been shown to have a significant impact on ACP and other citrus pests. Research on the citrus peelminer (Marmara gulosa) and citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) has involved assistance with the identification of parasitoids from field studies in California and central Mexico. A researcher is currently looking at the eulophid parasitoids associated with Citrus Leafminers through projects conducted by a graduate student. This lab will also be addressing relationships in the Gonatocerus species group, which include important egg parasitoids of sharpshooters in California. This will be the first molecular analysis of the group and will try to address some recent controversial taxonomic changes that have been made at the genus level.     Objective 8.  Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control.   Current efforts against Asian citrus psyllid are focused on automated in-field monitoring of foraging Argentine ants. The goal is to use the internet of things to monitor ant activity in near real time to identify hot spots within orchards that require ant control. Argentine ant is highly disruptive to biocontrol because ants protect honeydew producing pests from natural enemies and in return they are rewarded with sugar, a highly coveted resource in citrus orchards. Additionally, this study is investigating the efficacy of cover crops for increasing natural enemy activity against sap sucking citrus pests, and whether or not conservation biocontrol is synergized when ants are controlled.   The overwintering survival of Chrysochus asclepiadeus larvae was measured. It is a candidate for biological control of Vincetoxicum spp.   A large study is looking at pesticides used in vineyards, and the focus has been on the application of materials that do not disrupt natural enemies.   Guam researchers have continued to survey invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands during 2019.  This activity is part of an ongoing USDA-APHIS-CAPS funded project on the surveillance of Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and the CNMI.  A related study seeks to describe attendance behavior of Guam’s invasive ants towards aphids, scales and mealybugs commonly encountered in the Marianas, and the effects this might have on biological control agents against hemipteran plant pests.    The USDA-ARS laboratory in Arizona worked on several areas of potential disruption to biocontrol.  Field studies examined non-target effects of Bt cotton targeting plant bugs and thrips using natural enemy community sampling and life tables to assess impacts on biological control of whiteflies.  Field studies showed that 4 new insecticides for whitefly are highly selective; they do not harm arthropod natural enemies in cotton and provide for favorable predator to pest rations favoring biological control. Plot sizes of 18 x 18m appear to be sufficient to optimally measure non-target effects. A database was completed cataloging all non-target field studies conducted on Bt-maize and meta-analysis of this data to examine impacts on natural enemies and biological control function is underway.    Researchers are studying the generalist predator Geocoris pallens and trying to understand key influences on its population dynamics.  They have found that a pathogen is present in Geocoris pallens populations that is virulent, causing increased developmental mortality, slowed development, and reduced fecundity.  The pathogen also elicits elevated expression of cannibalism.  Geocoris populations in California have shown pathogen-induced collapses, some transient and some more persistent.  The identity of the pathogen remains elusive; studies are underway that are currently characterizing a group of RNA viruses present in G. pallens and attempting to determine if they are associated with the cannibalism disease.   University of Wyoming researchers focused efforts on understanding factors that limit biological control of alfalfa weevil Hypera postica. The most common parasitoid of alfalfa weevil in Wyoming is the wasp Bathyplectes curculionis, at levels as high as 50% of alfalfa weevils assays. However, alfalfa weevil remains quite problematic, so in 2019 they shifted their focus to evaluate which hyperparasitoids are infecting this wasp, to learn if this is disruptive to biological control in this system. Thus far, they have found 4 different species of hyperparasitoids, and are still working on identifying these species.       Objective 9.  Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity.   Ongoing work has demonstrated that conservation biological control of Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) natural enemies significantly increases predator activity towards colonies of immature ACP. Provisionment of flowering plants, especially alyssum, recruits and retains adult hover flies (i.e., syrphids). These highly vagile adults lay eggs on ACP patches and larvae are voracious predators of ACP nymphs and other sap sucking pests. In citrus orchards, ACP mortality from larval hover fly predation is significantly greater in the vicinity of alyssum when compared to control plots lacking this cover crop. It is speculated that conservation biocontrol can be synergized when ants are suppressed.   For the past year, research was conducted to evaluate the attractiveness of various annual and perennial flowering plants to pollinators and natural enemies. Results will be used to select suitable plants for habitat plantings associated with saffron to combat bulb mites and thrips. Field beds of saffron were established at the Univ. of Vermont Horticultural Research Ctr., where habitat bands of annual and perennial flowering plants will be established in 2020. These will serve as attractive environments for beneficials that may contribute to reducing bulb mite populations.   Leaffooted bug (Coreidae: Leptoglossus zonatus). Work was recently initiated to evaluate the use of trap crops to control L. zonatus populations in pistachio orchards. The experimental ground covers both act as a trap crop for L. zonatus but also provision resources for Gryon pennsylvanicum, the key egg parasitoid of L. zonatus. They have also initiated studies on the ecology of G. pennsylvanicum in Central California to better understand bottlenecks and limits on conservation biological control.   Navel orangeworm (Pyralidae: Amyelois transitella). Reseachers recently initiated a study to evaluate the effects of winter ground covers on mortality of A. transitella larvae overwintering in mummy nuts. The idea is that mortality of A. transitella is higher when mummy nuts are placed within stands of ground cover, possibly due to changes in abiotic conditions along with increased microbial activity.   Work was completed on macadamia nut canopy management to increase diversity of natural enemies of macadamia felted coccid (Acanthococcus [Eriococcus] ironsidei) in orchards. Researchers demonstrated that producing open canopies (compared with dense closed canopies) increased understory flowering plant diversity and biomass, which in turn increased natural enemy (primarily Coccinellidae) abundance and impact on the pest populations.     Goal C:  Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy.   Objective 10.  Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies.   Results have been reported under other objectives, but a few specific examples from 2019 follow.  The thermal tolerance of two native endoparastoids, Pachycrepoideus vindemiae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and Trichopria drosophilae (Hymenoptera: Diapriidae) was studied in the lab. An Oregon population of T. drosophilae was more cold-tolerant and less heat-tolerant than a California population. California populations of both insects were tolerant of 1 month or more of cold storage as part of a simulated mass-rearing program.   Studies determined survival rate, longevity, and fecundity under various development temperatures for Gryon gonikopalense in host eggs of Bagrada hilaris in controlled conditions   Work on the temperature requirements for the development of two Asian citrus psyllid parasitoids, Tamarixia radiata (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) and Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), one of their hyperparasitoids, Psyllaphycus diaphorinae (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), and the target pest, ACP, were completed. These data have significant value for modeling parasitoid establishment and impacts in varying geographic locations with significantly different climatic conditions. This work has either been accepted for publication (ACP and P. diaphorinae) or published (T. radiata and D. aligarhensis).   Identification of plant volatile semiochemicals that may influence Trichogramma searching is being investigated as potential means to improve augmentative release impact of Trichogramma spp. We are currently examining T. papilionis responses to semiochemicals released by sun hemp plants following Lepidoptera oviposition. At least four potential semiochemicals have been identified using head-space analysis and y-tube olfactometer studies of the wasps’ responses to the compounds.       Objective 11.  Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility.   Results have been reported under other objectives, but a few specific examples from 2019 follow.  Experiments were conducted to optimize cold storage conditions on survival and parasitism rate of Gryon gonikopalense in host eggs of Bagrada hilaris in controlled conditions.   Experiments were also conducted to increase efficiency of mass-rearing the parasitoid Psyttalia lounsburyi and P. ponerophaga for biological control of Bactrocera oleae.   Cold storage and mass production techniques were evaluated for the Drosophila suzukii parasitoids Pachycrepoideus vindimiae (Pteromalidae), Trichopria drosophilae (Diapriidae) in order to improve mass production.     Objective 12.  Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies.   Many results have been reported under other objectives.  A few examples follow:   In collaboration with researchers at USDA, a University of California group has released two pupal parasitoids, Pachycrepoideus vindimiae (Pteromalidae) and Trichopria drosophilae (Diapriidae) near blue berry and strawberry fields to ‘inoculate’ these resident parasitoids before and after the harvest cycle.   Continued studies observing bulb mites associated with diseased saffron corms in Vermont trials, confirmed their pest status in New England saffron. Researchers continued to refine rearing of the Rhizoglyphus robini (bulb mite) colony established in 2018. Further trials were conducted showed that drying the Petri dishes filled with potato dextrose agar (PDA) under a laminar flow hood for 1 mo reduced the moisture content to 67%, which increased mite survival. It was also found that adding antibiotics or a fungicide to the medium had a negative effect on mite populations. Mite populations peaked between 10-20 days after introduction into the Petri dish. Lab trials in Petri dishes were also conducted to assess predation of R. robini by Stratiolaelaps scimitus, and it was determined that the predatory mite consumed greater than 30 thrips per day. Three predator/prey ratios were used (1:5, 1:10 and 1:15) with 5 S. scimitus to 25, 50 and 75 R. robini. Predation was assessed after 48 hours. Results showed the 1:5 predator:prey ratio yielded mortality of 72.47 percent, which was statistically greater than the other treatments and control. This ratio will be used for the next stage, which is trials with saffron corms in pots, to which predatory and bulb mites are added.       Goal D:  Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control.   Objective 13.  Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents.   Many results have been reported under other objectives.  One example follows: From the USDA-ARS Laboratory in Arizona:  a comprehensive synthesis of the global literature showed the economic value of classical biological control averages $37.4M per successful project with a benefit to cost ratio of 61:1, and the value of conservation biological control averages $74/Ha. These estimates are considered conservative as they do not include external costs of alternative insecticide use and other sociological factors.     Objective 14.  Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs.   A UC-Berkeley group presented at many research or grower-oriented programs to reach an estimated audience of about 2000 persons (estimated at 100 persons per presentation).   The annual PPQ workshop was held in Guam in March 2019, again without SPC participation.  It is hoped SPC's financial situation will ameliorate and allow their future participation and financial support for the PPQ workshops in the future.   Over this review period a total of 9 semitechnical/scholarly articles (e.g., Citrograph, CAPCA Adviser) on ACP, BMSB, Argentine ant, SAPW, and SLF were published. Updates were posted to <a href="http://www.biocontrol.ucr.edu">www.biocontrol.ucr.edu</a>  and <a href="http://www.cisr.ucr.edu">www.cisr.ucr.edu</a>.  A total of 30 extension talks covering ACP biocontrol, conservation biocontrol and IPM, management of Argentine ant, BMSB invasion ecology and biocontrol, and SAPW invasion ecology and management were given. Approximately 20 media interviews to newspapers (e.g., New York Times, Press Enterprise, San Bernardino Sun), radio (e.g., NPR 4 times which included “The Salt”, “Deep Look”, “Radio Lab”, and the “California Report”), T.V. (e.g., CBS-8 News San Diego), and various trade (e.g., Ag. Alert, Western Farm Press) and popular magazines (e.g., Sunset) were given on aspects of the work reported on here.   As part of a funded NSF project a UC-Riverside group is developing modules that explain parasitoids to high school students, Master Gardeners and other venues (http://outreach.chalcid.org/). The approach is to teach more upper-division students or adults about the importance of parasitoids in biological control. They are developing outreach materials to teach about chalcidoids and other parasitic Hymenoptera in the classroom. The idea is to develop independent modules for classrooms centered on yellow pan trap ‘observatories’ as a means to discuss ‘true’ biodiversity. Their ideas for outreach are being vetted through a broad group of local teachers, and extension researchers at UC Riverside and Texas A&M University. The display box on right is populated with mounted specimens and the QR codes lead to web-links that have more information on each group.  They have also developed an online powerpoint presentation, with audio, on biodiversity of parasitic Hymenoptera that we have been able to get introduced into high school curriculums on ecology. They are currently in the process of developing a web page that can deliver all of the products, and are also working with Master Gardeners to develop modules and information appropriate for their clientele Impacts 2019   Water and soil resources for agriculture, and habitat for native plant species, in rangelands, forests, wetland and aquatic systems, have been protected through biological and integrated control of alligatorweed, arundo, Cape-ivy, Dalmatian toadflax, French broom, Russian thistle, Scotch broom, water hyacinth, and yellow starthistle   Control for bagrada bug, olive fruit fly and spotted-wing drosophila have been improved with reduced insecticide use and improved protection of crops.   Gryon gonikopalense, a host specific egg parasitoid of the cole crop pest Bagrada hilaris.  It is an ideal biological control agent as its impact prevents any major damage to the host plants. The development cycle of the egg parasitoid is perfectly synchronized with its host and is able to attack a high percentage of host eggs on various species.  It is effective at low host density, and targets eggs that are dominantly buried into the ground by the Bagrada hilaris females making this parasitoid an invaluable tool for pest containment.   The phylogeography study conducted on Pyrrhalta viburni parasitoids strongly suggests that there is only one egg parasitoid of P. viburni present in Europe, which provided important clues regarding the assemblage of natural enemies attacking it in its native range.   The genetic barcoding of olive psyllid, Euphyllura olivine, individuals collected in Spain, France and California revealed that the Californian population is closely related to one population in Southern Spain and one population in Southern France, indicating the potential origin of the Californian invasive populations and suggesting where to look for promising natural enemies.   In 2019, a UC-Berkeley laboratory conducted research and compiled results on invasive pests (spotted wing drosophila, olive psylla, brown marmorated stink bug, vine mealybug) and native pests (stink bugs and leaffooted bugs). The work resulted in numerous presentations to growers and researchers, 13 peer-reviewed publications, and two USDA APHIS petitions to release natural enemies of invasive species (spotted wing drosophila and olive psylla). A large team of researchers are collaborating to build a global database that is being used to evaluate the influence of the agricultural and natural landscape on the success of biological pest control. Growers were presented a greater number of control tools for invasive and native pests of vineyards, nut crops and various row crops, including hemp. This information has aided growers in more sustainable farming techniques, resulting in a reduction of the pesticide load in the environment, a reduction in pest damage and an increase in farm profitability. Over 155,000 Aulacidea acroptilonica galls and adults were consigned or released in ID, MT, and NM. The gall wasp is now established and increasing in population at least 25 sites in Montana and dispersing over 8 km at some establishments. The gall mite, Aceria drabae, was also released in Montana. This is the first biological control agent to be released in North America against hoarycress. Orcytes nudivirus is currently being disseminated throughout Guam and its impact monitored.  New strains of O. nudivirus are being sought from coconut rhinoceros  infested countries in the Western Pacific Region.   Low summer mortality rates within Dalmatian Toadflax stems should promote weevil establishment under the hot, dry conditions typical of locations in Utah where the weed is problematical.  Increased understanding of weevil phenology within host stems will facilitate development of standardized, summer monitoring for this biocontrol agent by stem dissection.  The importance of controlling the invasive Argentine ant in citrus orchards was demonstrated.  The positive flow on effects for natural enemies and subsequent biocontrol of sap sucking citrus pests was significant. These results suggest that insecticide sprays for citrus pests could be reduced if ants are controlled and natural enemy activity increases. These beneficial effects could be amplified if flowering cover crops are planted around the margins of citrus orchards. Work demonstrated that natural enemies, especially hover flies, respond strongly to this resource and impacts on key citrus pests such as Asian citrus psyllid increase substantially. The results of this work were extended to hundreds of end users via talks, the web, field days/workshops, and media interviews.   Information on rearing bulb mites was shared with other scientists who are working on this pest, and intend to adopt these methods, for their biological control research. Multiple presentations and factsheets were prepared and given on the value of habitat plantings, reaching at least 1,000 growers, many of whom have adopted this practice which benefits the environment by supporting beneficial arthropods.   New pest control technologies (new insecticides, new Bt crops) need to be proactively assessed to determine compatibility with existing biological control services. The economic value of biological control is immense and additional efforts should balance the cost of more complete assessments with the need to implement biological control more widely and inform policy makers of its value.    Regional monitoring of Virginia creeper leafhopper allows us to follow the impacts of the A. daanei rear-release program that ran between 2015-2018. In 2018, the first year without releases, a rather drastic reduction in parasitism rates was noted.  We are now considering the possibility of resuming A. daanei introductions, but first clarifying a few questions about the biogeography and behavior of this natural enemy. Multiple presentations were given on this leafhopper/parasitoid in 2019, including grower (EcoFarm, Santa Cruz Mountains Winegrowers Association, Wild Farm Alliance, CAPCA Fresno/Madera, CAPCA North Coast), professional talks (ESA Pacific Branch) and public talks (Cal. Academy of Sciences “NightLife!” event)   The effectiveness of canopy thinning of macadamia nut orchards was demonstrated to facilitate diversification of understory plant assemblages, and the impact on natural enemies of macadamia felted coccid (Ericoccus ironsidei).   Chalcidoidea are economically and biologically one of the most important groups of insects, and yet very little is known of their taxonomy (identification) or relationships. Research is identifying new potential biological control agents for use against pestiferous leafminers on citrus, whitefly on citrus, aphids on wheat and other crops, and for wasps attacking pestiferous ants. New research on cryptic species complexes (morphologically identical but reproductively and biologically distinct species) using molecular markers has tremendous potential for the identification of new biological control agents. This research is providing a better understanding of the wasp parasitoids attacking several pest groups in California including the Citrus Peelminer, Citrus Leafminer, sharpshooter parasitoids and the Asian Citrus psyllid. Identification keys and other products will help other researchers to better understand the impact of these groups, and identify gaps that aid in targeting new biological control agents.

Publications

PUBLICATIONS ISSUED - 2019   Arnold, J. E., Egerer, M., and Daane, K. M. 2019. Local and landscape effects to biological controls in urban agriculture – a Review. Insects 10 (7), 215. doi:10.3390/insects10070215.   Baker, A.J., Heraty, J.M., Mottern, J., Zhang, J., Hines, H.M., Lemmon, A.R., Lemmon, E.M. 2019. Inverse dispersal patterns in a group of ant parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Eucharitidae: Oraseminae) and their ant hosts. Systematic Entomology DOI: 10.1111/syen.1237.   Banks, H.T., J.E. Banks, N.G. Cody, M.S. Hoddle, and A.E. Meade. 2019. Population model for the decline of Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) over a ten-year period. J. Biol. Dynamics. 13: 422-446.   Ben Ghabrit, S., Bouhache, M., Birouk, A., Bon, M. 2019. Macromorphological variation of the invasive Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum laeagnifolium Cav.) and its relation to climate and altitude in Morocco. Revue Marocaine des Sciences Agronomiques et Vétérinaires. 7(2), 234-251.   Bitume, EV, Moran PJ, Sforza RFH. 2019. Impact in quarantine of the galling weevil Lepidapion argentatum on shoot growth of French broom (Genista monspessulana), an invasive weed in the western U.S. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 1-11.   Bodwitch, H., Getz, C., Hickey, G., Daane, K. M., Carah, J., Grantham T. E., and Wilson, H. 2019. Growers say cannabis legalization excludes small growers, supports illicit markets, and undermines local economies. California Agriculture 73(3-4): 177-184.   Chaplin-Kramer, R., M. O’Rourke, N. Schellhorn, W. Zhang, B. Robinson, C. Gratton, J. A. Rosenheim, T. Tscharntke, and D. S. Karp.  2019.  Measuring what matters: actionable information for conservation biocontrol in multifunctional landscapes.  Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 3:60.  doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2019.00060.   Chardonnet, F., Blanchet, A, Hurtrel, B, Marini, F, Smith, L. 2019. Mass rearing optimization of the parasitoid Psyttalia lounsburyi for biological control of the olive fruit fly. Journal of Applied Entomology.  143: 277– 288. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jen.12573">doi: 10.1111/jen.12573</a>.              Clarke CW, Calatayud P-A, Sforza RFH, Ndemah RN, Nyamukondiwa C 2019. Editorial: Parasitoids' Ecology and Evolution. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution (7): 485  DOI=10.3389/fevo.2019.00485.    Daane, K. M., Yokota, G. Y., and Wilson, H. 2019. Seasonal dynamics of the leaffooted bug Leptoglossus zonatus and its implications for control in almonds and pistachios. Insects 10, 255. doi:10.3390/insects10080255.   Dainese, M., et al.  2019.  A global synthesis reveals biodiversity-mediated benefits for crop production.  Science Advances 5: eaax0121.   Dalton, D. T., Hilton, R. J., Kaiser, C., Daane, K. M., Sudarshana, M. R., Vo, J., Zalom, F. G., Buser, J. Z., and Walton, V. M. 2019. Spatial associations of vines infected with grapevine red blotch virus in Oregon vineyards. Plant Disease 103(7): 1507-1514. DOI: 10.1094/PDIS-08-18-1306-RE.   Desurmont, G.A., Kerdellant, E., Pfingstl, T., Auger, P., Tixier, M.S. and Kreiter, S., 2019. Mites associated with egg masses of the viburnum leaf beetle Pyrrhalta viburni (Paykull) on Viburnum tinus L. Acarologia. 59(1): 57-72. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.24349/acarologia/20194311">doi: 10.24349/acarologia/20194311</a>.   Emery, S. E. and Mills, N. J.  2019.  Effects of temperature and other environmental factors on the post-diapause development of walnut husk fly Rhagoletis completa (Diptera: Tephritidae).  Physiological Entomology 44: 33-42.   Gariepy, TD, Bruin, A, Konopka, J, Scott Dupree, C., Fraser, H., Bon, M.C., Talamas, E. 2019. A modified DNA barcode approach to define trophic interactions between native and exotic pentatomids and their parasitoids. Molecular Ecology 28: 456– 470. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.14868">doi: 10.1111/mec.14868</a>.   Garzón-Orduña, I. J., Winterton, S. L., Jiang, Yunlan, Breitkreuz, L. C., Duelli, P., Engel, M. S., Penny, N. D., Tauber, C. A., Mochizuki, A., Liu, Xingyue. 2019. Evolution of green lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae): a molecular supermatrix approach. Systematic Entomology 44: 499-513. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/syen.12339">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/syen.12339</a>. Giorgini, M., Wang, X.-G., Wang, Y., Chen, F.-U., Hougardy, E., Hong-Mei, Zhang, H.-M., Chen, Z.-Q., Chen, H.-Y., Liu, C.-X., Casconea, P., Formisano, G. Carvalho, G. A., Biondi, A., Buffington, M., Daane, K. M., Hoelmer, K. A., and Guerrieri, E. 2019. Exploration for native parasitoids of Drosophila suzukii in China reveals a diversity of parasitoid species and narrow host range of the dominant parasitoid.  Journal of Pest Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-018-01068-3.   Gols R, Ros VID, Ode PJ, Vyas D, Harvey JA.  2019.  Varying degree of physiological integration among host instars and its endoparasitoid affect stress-induced mortality.  Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 167: 424-432.  https://doi.org/10.1111/eea.12765   Goolsby, J.A., Moran, P.J.  2019. Field impact of the arundo scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis (Homoptera: Diaspididae) on Arundo donax on the Rio Grande. Subtrop. Agric. Environ. 70, 11-16. <a href="http://www.subplantsci.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/SAES-Goolsby-et-al.-2019-3.pdf">http://www.subplantsci.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/SAES-Goolsby-et-al.-2019-3.pdf</a>.   Harvey JA, Gols R, Smith B, Ode PJ.  2019.  Invasive moth facilitates use of a native food plant by other native and invasive arthropods.  Ecological Research 34:659-666.  https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1730.12035   Heraty, J.M., Derafshan, H.A., Ghafouri, M. 2019. Review of the Philomidinae ruschka (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Perilampidae), with description of three new species. Arthropod Systematics and Phylogeny 77: 39–56.   Hogg, B.N., Moran, P.J., Smith, L. 2019. Relative performance and impacts of the psyllid Arytinnis hakani (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) on nontarget plants and the target weed Genista monspessulana (Fabales: Fabaceae). Environ. Entomol. 48, 524-532. doi: 10.1093/ee/nvz041.   Hopper, J.V., McCue, K.F., Pratt, P.D., Duchesne, P., Grosholz, E.D., Hufbauer, R. 2019. Into the weeds: matching importation history to genetic consequences and pathways in two widely used biological control agents. Evol. Appl. 12, 773-790. doi:10.1111/eva.12755.   Hougardy, E., Hogg, B. N., Wang, X.-G., and Daane, K. M. 2019. Comparison of thermal performances of two Asian larval parasitoids of Drosophila suzukii. Biological Control 136: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.104000.   Jalali, M. A., Sakaki, S., Ziaaddini, M., and Daane, K. M. 2019. Temperature-dependent development of Oenopia conglobata (Col.: Coccinellidae) fed on Aphis gossypii (Hem.: Aphididae). International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 38(4): 410-417.   Jarrett B. J. M., J. Pote, E. Talamas, L. Gut and M. Szűcs. 2019. The discovery of Trissolcus japonicus (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) in Michigan. The Great Lakes Entomologist. 52:6-11.   Jourdan, M., Thomann, T.,Kriticos, D., Bon, M.C., Sheppard, A., Baker, G.H. 2019. Sourcing effective biological control agents of conical snails, Cochlicella acuta, in Europe and North Africa for release in southern Australia. Biological Control. 134: 1-14. doi: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.03.020.   Kaufman, L.V., Yalemar, J., & Wright, M.G. 2019. Classical biological control of the erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae, in Hawaii: conserving an endangered habitat. Biological Control (In press). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.104161.   Lara, J.R., C. Pickett, and M.S. Hoddle. 2019. Physiological host range of Trissolcus japonicus in relation to Halyomorpha halys and other pentatomids in California. BioControl 64: 514-528. doi.org/10.1007/s10526-019-09950-4. Lee, J. C., Wang., X.-G., Daane, K. M., Hoelmer, K. A., Isaacs, R., Sial, A. A., Walton, V. M. 2019. Biological control of spotted-wing drosophila – current and pending tactics. Journal of Integrated Pest Management 10(1): 13; 1–9. doi.org/10.1093/jipm/pmz012.   Luna E, van Eck L, Campillo T, Weinroth M, Metcalf J, Perez-Quintero AL, Botha A-M, Thannhauser TW, Pappin D, Tisserat NA, Lapitan NLV, Argueso CT, Ode PJ, Heck ML, Leach LE.  2018.  Bacteria associated with Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia) enhance aphid virulence to wheat.  Phytobiomes 2: 151-164.  https://doi.org/10.1094/PBIOMES-06-18-0027-R   Martel, G, Augé, M, Talamas, E, Roche, M, Smith, L, Sforza, R.F.H. 2019. First laboratory evaluation of Gryon gonikopalense (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), as potential biological control agent of Bagrada hilaris (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Biological Control. 135: 48-56 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.04.014">doi: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.04.014</a>.   McCalla, K.A., M. Keçeci, D.A. Ratkowsky, and M.S. Hoddle. 2019. The influence of temperature variation on life history parameters and thermal population curves of Tamarixia radiata (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), a parasitoid of the Asian citrus psyllid (Hemiptera: Liviidae). J. Econ. Entomol. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toz067">https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toz067</a>.   Miller, R.H., R.G. Foottit, E. Maw, and K.S. Pike.  2019.  Genetic and morphological diversity in Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in the Pacific Basin.  Pacific Science 70(3): 367-387.   Milosavljevic, I. and M.S. Hoddle. 2019. Chapter 13: Advances in classical biological control that support IPM in perennial agricultural crops. In: Integrated Management of Insect Pests: Current and Future Developments. Eds: M. Kogan and L. Higley. Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing.    Milosavljevic, I., K.A. McCalla, D.A. Ratkowsky, and M.S. Hoddle. 2019. Effects of constant and fluctuating temperatures on the development rates and longevity of Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). J. Econ. Entomol. doi: 10.1093jee/toy429.   Naranjo, S.E. 2019. Assessing insect flight behavior in the laboratory: A primer on flight mill methodology and what can be learned. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 112: 182-199.   Naranjo, S.E., Frisvold, G.B., Ellsworth, P.C. 2019. Economic value of arthropod biological control. 49-85, in The Economics of Integrated Pest Management for Insects, D. Onstad, P. Crain (eds.). Springer, Dordrecht-Heidelberg-London-New York.   Naranjo, S.E., Hellmich, R.L., Romeis, J., Shelton, A.M., Velez, A.M. 2019. The role and use of genetically engineered insect-resistant crops in IPM systems. P. 1-58, In Integrated management of insect pests: Current and future developments, M. Kogan, E. Heinrichs (eds.). Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, Cambridge, UK.   Ode PJ.  2019.  Plant toxins and parasitoid trophic ecology.  Current Opinion in Insect Science 32: 118-123.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2019.01.007   Perry, R.K., Heraty J.M. 2019. A tale of two setae: how morphology and ITS2 help delimit a cryptic species complex in Eulophidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Insect Systematics and Biodiversity 3: 1–23.   Pratt, P.D., Herr, J.C., Carruthers, R.I., Pitcairn, M.J., Villegas, B., Kelley, M.B., 2019. Release, establishment and realized geographic distribution of Diorhabda carinulata and D. elongata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in California, U.S.A. Biocon. Sci. Technol. 29, 686-705. doi: 10.1080/09583157.2019.1587739.   Pratt, P.D., Pitcairn, M.J., Oneto, S., Kelley, M.B., Sodergren, C.J., Herr, J., Beaulieu F., Andreas, J., 2019. Invasion of the gall forming mite Aceria genistae, a natural enemy of the invasive weed Cytisus scoparius, into California, U.S.A. and predictions of its potential for establishment in other regions using ecological niche modeling. Environ. Entomol. 29, 494–513. doi:10.1080/09583157.2019.1566440.   Reddy, A.M., Pratt, P.D., Hopper, J.V., Cibils-Stewart, J., Walsh, G.C., McKey, F. 2019. Variation in cool temperature performance between populations of Neochetina eichhorniae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and implications for the biological control of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, in a temperate climate. Biol. Control 128, 85-93. doi: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2018.09.016.   Romeis, J., Naranjo, S.E., Meissle, M., Shelton, A.M. 2019. Genetically engineered crops help support conservation biological control. Biological Control 130: 136-154.   Rosenheim, J. A., N. Booster, M. Culshaw-Maurer, T. Mueller, R. Kuffel, Y.-H. Law, P. B. Goodell, T. Pierce, L. D. Godfrey, W. B. Hunter, and A. Sadeh.  2019.  Disease, elevated cannibalism expression, and associated population crash in an omnivorous bug, Geocoris pallens.  Oecologia 190:69-83.   Sforza RFH 2019. La lutte biologique contre les adventices est-elle possible? (in French) Réussir Fruits & Légumes, Hors Série Prospectives (399): 66-70.   Stahl, J., Tortorici, F., Pontini, M., Bon, M.C., Hoelmer, K.H.,  Mazari, C., Tavella, L, Haye, T. 2019. First discovery of adventive populations of Trissolcus japonicus in Europe. Journal of Pest Science 92: 371-379. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-018-1061-2">doi: 10.1007/s10340-018-1061-2</a>.   Szűcs M, E. Vercken, E. Bitume and R.A. Hufbauer. 2019. The implications of rapid eco-evolutionary dynamics for biological control – a review. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 167:598-615.   Szűcs M, P. Salerno, B. Teller, U. Schaffner, J. Littlefield and R.A. Hufbauer. 2019. The effects of agent hybridization on the efficacy of biological control of tansy ragwort at high elevations. Evolutionary Applications 12 (3): 470-481 doi.org/10.1111/eva.12726.   Szucs, M., P. Salerno, U. Schaffner, B. Teller, J. Littlefield, and R. Hufbauer. 2019. Could hybridization between agent biotypes increase biological control efficacy? In: H.L. Hinz et al. (Eds), Proceedings of the XV International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Engelberg, Switzerland, pp. 255. https://www.ibiocontrol.org/proceedings/.   Tauber, C. A., Simmons, Z., and Tauber, A. J. 2019. Type specimens of Neuropterida in the Hope Entomological Collection, Oxford University Museum of Natural History. ZooKeys 823: 1-126. https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/30231/download/pdf/.   Tauber, C. A. 2019. South American Nothochrysinae: I. Description of Nothochrysa ehrenbergi n. sp. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). ZooKeys 866: 1-18. https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/35394/.   Tauber, C. A. 2019. South American Nothochrysinae: II. Redescription of Leptochrysa prisca Adams & Penn (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). ZooKeys 866: 19-38.  https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/35396/.   Vankosky, M.A. and M.S. Hoddle. 2019. Two parasitoids of Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Liviidae) have shared, stage specific preference for host nymphs that does not impact mortality rates. Fla. Entomol. 102: 49-58. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.102.0108.   Volkovitsh, M., M. Dolgovskaya, M. Cristofaro, F. Marini, M.  Augé, J. Littlefield, M.  Schwarzländer, M.  Kalashian, and R. Jashenko. 2019. Preliminary studies on Oporopsamma wertheimsteini and Sphenoptera foveola, two potential biological control agents of Chondrilla juncea. In: H.L. Hinz et al. (Eds), Proceedings of the XV International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Engelberg, Switzerland, pp. 45. https://www.ibiocontrol.org/proceedings/.   Vyas D, Harvey JA, Paul R, Heimpel GE, Ode PJ.  2019.  Ecological dissociation and re-association with a superior competitor alters host selection behavior in a parasitoid wasp.  Oecologia 191: 261-270.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-019-04470-5    Wang, X., Hogg, B.N., Hougardy, E., Nance, A.H., Daane, K.M., 2019. Potential competitive outcomes among three solitary larval endoparasitoids as candidate agents for classical biological control of Drosophila suzukii. Biol. Control. 130, 18-26. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2018.12.003.   Wang, X.-G., Kaçar, G., and Daane, K. M. 2019. Temporal dynamics of host use by Drosophila suzukii in California’s San Joaquin Valley: Implications for area-wide pest management. Insects 10(7), 206. doi.org/10.3390/insects10070206.   Wang, X-G., Hougardy, E., Nance, A. H., Hogg, B. N., Hoelmer, K. A., and Daane, K. M. 2019. Potential competitive outcomes among three solitary larval endoparasitoids as candidate agents for classical biological control of Drosophila suzukii. Biological Control 130: 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2018.12.003.   Willden, S. A. and E. W. Evans.  2019.  Summer development and survivorship of the weed biocontrol agent, Mecinus janthiniformis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), within stems of its host, Dalmatian Toadflax (Lamiales: Plantaginaceae), in Utah.  Environmental Entomology 48: 533-539. Williams III, L.H., Pointurier, O., Deschodt, P. 2019. Affect of food provisioning on survival and reproductive success of the olive fruit fly parasitoid, Psyttalia lounsburyi, in the field. Arthropod-Plant Interactions. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-019-09684-1">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-019-09684-1</a>. Wilson, H. 2019 “Update on the Area-wide IPM Program for Virginia Creeper Leafhopper in the North Coast” CAPCA Adviser, August 2019.   Wilson, H., Bodwitch, H., Daane, K. M., Carah, J., Grantham T. E., Getz, C., and Bustic, V. 2019. First known survey of cannabis production practices in California. California Agriculture 73(3-4): 119-127.   Winterton, S. L., Gillung, J. P., Garzón-Orduña, I. J., Breitkreuz, L. C. V., Duelli, P., Engel, M. S., Penny, N. D., Tauber, C. A., ., Mochizuki, A., Liu, Xingyue, Machado, R. J. P., & Oswald, J. D. 2019. Evolution of green lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae): an anchored phylogenomics approach. Systematic Entomology 44: 514-526.   Wright, M.G. 2019. Cover crops, conservation biocontrol and augmentative releases – can Trichogramma impacts be magnified? Annals of the Entomological Society of America 112: 295-297.

Impact Statements

Date of Annual Report: 12/11/2020

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 10/02/2020 - 10/02/2020
Period the Report Covers: 01/01/2020 - 12/31/2020

Participants

Participants Attachment:

W4185 2020 Annual Report - Final-1.docx

Brief Summary of Minutes

Accomplishments

Publications

Impact Statements

Date of Annual Report: 07/05/2022

Report Information

Annual Meeting Dates: 04/13/2022 - 04/13/2022
Period the Report Covers: 01/01/2021 - 04/30/2022

Participants

Participants Attachment:

Meeting_Participants.pdf

Brief Summary of Minutes

Minutes Attachment:

Appendix A W4185 2022 Meeting.pdf

Accomplishments

ACCOMPLISHMENTS   These are only a selection of 2021-2022 results.  This large, collaborative group works on OVER 140 different species of arthropod and weed pests.     Objective 1: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies   Objective 1a.  Survey indigenous natural enemies.   A significant discovery this year was the accidental introduction of Orasema minutissima to the island of Hawai'i. As a potential biological control agent against Wasmannia, this is an important find. It was found in the early stages of spread, which allows for the documentation of its spread and impact on the ant. A survey in spring 2022 showed that the wasp has spread around the entire island of Hawai'i, but does not yet occur on the island of Oahu or Maui (and likely not on any of the other Hawaiian islands).  A large revison of the eulophid genus Zagrammosoma, was published - which are parasitoids of lepidopterous leafminers, including a significant number of pest species.   A year-long survey of arthropods with pitfall traps was completed along a gradient of natural to vineyard land in Napa, CA.   Arthropods have been identified, and data analyses are underway. Studies continued on the current distribution, abundance and parasitism of the light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana, LBAM) in California. Larval populations were found in landscape plantings from Santa Rosa in the north to Rancho Santa Fe in the south, but frequency of occurrence and abundance varied considerably between regions and locations. No larvae were found in landscape plantings that had been recently pruned. Larval and pupal parasitism levels were slightly lower than in previous years, but continued to be dominated by Meteorus ictericus, Nemorilla pyste and Pediobius ni.   Attack rates by resident parasitoids and predators on sentinel eggs of bagrada bug, Bagrada hilaris, were assessed by the USDA-ARS in Albany, CA at a total of 51 sites in north-central California. Predation rates were relatively high, exceeding 20% per day on some sample dates, but parasitism rates were very low. Of the 25,387 eggs deployed that were not predated or missing (out of the 35,673 total eggs that were deployed), only 47 (0.19%) were parasitized. Gryon aetherium, a biological control agent for bagrada bug that is currently undergoing testing, was found at one site. Sampling in 2020 and 2021 showed that G. aetherium is widespread in north-central California.   Surveys were conducted for native and the self-introduced parasitoid, Trissolcus japonicus, attacking the eggs of the brown marmorated stink bugs (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). This project is in its second year. Surveys are concentrating efforts in the Los Angeles Basin, southern California. Survey methods included the deployment of frozen sentinel BMSB egg masses and subsequent collection of these eggs after a 3-4 day exposure period. Field exposed eggs are sent to CDFA for rearing of parasitoids. The goal is to collect the self-introduced BMSB egg parasitoid, Trissolcus japonicus, which has been previously collected in the LA Basin by the Hoddle lab. CDFA will use these parasitoids to start T. japonicus colonies for mass production and release.   Proactive screening of an egg parasitoid, Anastatus orientalis, a natural enemy of the invasive spotted lantern fly, Lycorma delicatula, (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae), is underway in quarantine at UC Riverside. The goal of this project is to have host range and host specificity tests completed for A. orientalis in advance of the anticipated invasion by L. delicatula into California.   Significant progress has been made in host range testing and molecular and morphological identification of native non-target fulgorid species. This is a collaborative project with colleagues on the east coast of the USA where SLF has already established and is spreading. This pest presents a significant threat to California’s grape and nut industries.   Isolates of Oryctes rhinoceros nudivirus (OrNV) are being evaluated as candidates for effective biocontrol of coconut rhinoceros beetle biotype G (CRB-G). Parasitism by resident parasitoids on spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii) was monitored in cane berry fields and adjacent semi-natural habitats in the central coast of California. A novel strain of the egg parasitoid Anagrus daanei (Mymaridae), a natural enemy of the Virginia creeper leafhopper (Cicadellidae: Erythroneura ziczac) has been identified in California. Investigations continued on the current distribution, abundance and parasitism of the light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana, LBAM) in California. Larval populations were found in landscape plantings from Santa Rosa in the north to Rancho Santa Fe in the south, but frequency of occurrence and abundance varied considerably between regions and locations. No larvae were found in landscape plantings that had been recently pruned. Larval and pupal parasitism levels were slightly lower than in previous years, but continued to be dominated by Meteorus ictericus, Nemorilla pysteand Pediobius ni.   Also in progress is a large revison of the eulophid genus Zagrammosoma, which are parasitoids of lepidopterous leafminers, including a significant number of pest species. The first phylogenomic analysis of relationships in the family Eulophidae was published, which allows us to better predict evolutionary events and host relationships.     Objective 1b.  Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest.   Several institutions in the western US normally conduct foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year.  Many of these exploratory trips are only partially successful.  Species sent to quarantine facilities must survive the trip and reproduce.  Subsequent cultures will then be used for non-target host testing and evaluation for potential release.  Select studies that reported under this objective are summarized below. International travel restrictions due to the Covid-19 pandemic are cited explaining lack of work progress.  Many of these travel restrictions are lifting in 2022.  This objective is dependent on international travel.    The USDA-ARS in Albany, CA conducted explorations in Argentina and Paraguay for natural enemies of water-primrose, Ludwigia, and conducted host-range testing in quarantine in California, focused on the closest native relatives in the same genus and related genera, which led to rejection of several candidates.   An improved invasive species distribution model was developed for the light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana, LBAM) and we found a positive linear relationship between model predictions of environmental suitability and observed relative abundance of LBAM larvae for localities in coastal California.   Research continues on the parasites of the imported fire ant (Solenopsis) in South America and of the Little Red Fire Ant (Wasmannia) in the Caribbean and Central America. We are working with an Argentinian researcher on the molecular and morphological recognition of ants attacking the Solenopsis saevissima complex, which includes the fire ant. Other papers on parasitoids of ants included a phylogenetic analysis of the genus Kapala, which attack some of the larger ants in the subfamilies Ectatomminae and Ponerinae. We are continuing on new research program on the genus Encarsia, which are aphelinid parasitoids of armored scales and whiteflies. The initial objectives are a revision of the Encarsia strenua species group and a molecular phyogeny of the entire genus.   Research is underway on developing a molecular phylogeny for the egg-parasitic Research is utilizing three different molecular approaches to look at congruence of results, and ultimately the proposal of a new classification for the group. Dominguez did the molecular work for a paper on the genus Macrocamptoptera (Triapitsyn et al. 2020).   We are continuing our work on a National Science Foundation grant to revise the classification of the entire superfamily Chalcidoidea. This is a massive undertaking that involves molecular, morphological and bioinformatic approaches to resolve the relationships of the superfamily, and to disseminate information on the group through electronic resources and a new book that outlines the classification and biology of the group. Members of this superfamily are among the most important natural and introduced control agents of other pest insects, and this will form a foundation for all future studies on the group. Our first publication from this is an analysis of the transcriptomes across Chalcidoidea (Zhang et al. 2020). We have also obtained nexgen sequencing data for over 600 taxa that cover the breadth of the entire superfamily. The final results are in progress and we are working on an edited book to cover the entire superfamily. On this grant we trained two postdocs and four graduate students. We are also taking a bioinformatic approach by developing a new database to house all of the taxonomic and biological information on the superfamily in TaxonWorks, which is based on a migration of data from the Universal Chalcidoidea database. This will manage data for more than 30,000 taxonomic names and over 50,000 literature references, including information on their hosts and distributions.   As well, more than 1000 specimens of Aphelinidae and other Chalcidoidea were curated and added to the Entomology Research Museum collection of parasitic Hymenoptera.   Two parasitoids of Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, imported from Punjab Pakistan. One species, Tamarixia radiata, established readily, spread rapidly, and since the inception of this classical biological control program, ACP densities have declined by > 70%. The second species, Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis, did not establish.   In collaboration with colleagues in Colombia and Brazil, a tentative investigation assessing the feasibility of classical biocontrol of South American palm weevil, R. palmarum, with a parasitic tachinid fly, Billaea rhynchophorae, has been initiated. The goal of this work is to determine whether or not it is possible to mass rear this fly and to ascertain if live flies can be exported out of Brazil to California for safety evaluations in quarantine. Foreign exploration was supposed to have started in summer 2020. It was postponed by 1 year due to high COVID-19 spread in Brazil.   Field surveys for egg, larval, and pupal parasitoids of the avocado pest, H. lauri, in and around Ixtapan de la Sal and Coatepec-Harinas, Mexico in summer 2020 were not initiated due to COVID-19 work restrictions.   Surveys in Africa for candidate biological control agents of Guineagrass are in progress.  Two Eriophyoid mite species, Diptacus sp. and Abacarus sp. have been collected and shipped to stateside quarantine facilities for evaluation.    Intensive field surveys for classical biological control agents of the southern cattle fever tick, Rhipicephalus microplusare underway in Vietnam.  An unknown microhymenopteran was reared from cattle fever ticks collected in Vietnam.   Surveys were conducted at 30 sites (15 in Montana; 15 in Colorado) of Lepdium draba (hoary cress) for insect herbivores (both native and previously established introduced species) in preparation for evaluating the effects of releasing the recently approved mite biocontrol agent Aceria drabae.        Objective 1c.  Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies.   Molecular and morphological studies of native Fulgoridae have been undertaken as part of the proactive biological control project targeting spotted lantern fly. The 28S, ITS2 and CO1 regions have been sequenced. The 28S sequences need a second round of amplification with different primers to properly identify the three putative native lanternflies species currently designated as A, B, and C.  Preliminary analyses have confirmed three important results: the three morphospecies, A, B and C that have been characterized based on morphology, are genetically different and represent three different species.  Poblicia fuliginosa from the eastern USA is genetically different from specimens collected from the western USA which are also currently recognized as P. fuliginosa.  And finally, the three native lanternfly nymphs collected from fogging surveys of juniper at the South Western Research Station of the Natural History Museum in summer 2019 do not belong to one of the three morphospecies (A, B or C) that have been characterized molecularly.   Eriophyoid species collected from Guineagrass in Africa are being described.   The following projects between our US and International W-4185 cooperating members all feature species that have been the subject of molecular and genetic work this year;  a population comparison of a stem-feeding shoot fly (Cryptonevra nigritarsis) infesting Arundo donax in the south of France;  genetic fingerprinting  of a common garden experiment conducted in Greece to test the host plant specificity of the prospective biological control agent Larinus filiformis for Centaurea solstitialis; preliminary genetic comparisons between populations of the allium leaf miner (Phytomyza gymnostoma) in France and in the USA; genetic monitoring in choice and no-choice testing to ascertain the specificity of Psyttalia ponerophaga, a potential biocontrol agent of the olive fruit fly; phylogenetic analysis, species delineation and taxonomic revision of  egg parasitoids of Bagrada hilaris; a study that resolved the taxonomic status of Aprostocetus celtidis and A. suevius, two Pyrrhalta viburni parasitoids; a genetic fingerprinting of Trissolcus japonicuson Halyomorpha halys from USA and Europe; and a genetic and morphological comparison of parasitoid assemblages of Pyrrhalta viburni and the closely related beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola   All five species of the plumeless thistle genus Carduus are exotic invasives and listed as state noxious weeds in the USA. Multiple populations of an unknown plumeless thistle species were found in remote areas of the deepest river gorge in North America, Hells Canyon National Recreation Area in Oregon and Idaho. The plants were unrecognizable, so ARS Researchers in Sidney, Montana analyzed the plant’s DNA and matched it to specimens from the eastern Mediterranean. Then ARS, working with botanists from Oregon, California and Spain, definitively identified the plants as Carduus cinereus, a species never before found in the Americas. Northwestern states are now taking EDRR (Early Detection, Rapid Response) action on this new invasive threat.   A graduate student is studying the taxonomy and relationships of the tribe Cirrospilini (Eulophidae), which include important parasitoids of the Citrus leafminer and the Citrus Peelminer. This resulted in an upcoming monograph of the genus Zagrammosoma, a group of 24 species that all attack leafmining Lepidoptera. His studies were focused on addressing the evolution of host breadth in the genus. In a final paper relationships are being addressed for species across the entire tribe and a revision to the genera to provide a better taxonomic framework for understanding the underlying pattern of host association and distribution is being developed.   A new research program continues on the genus Encarsia, which are aphelinid parasitoids of armored scales and whiteflies. The initial objectives are a revision of the Encarsia strenua species group and a molecular phylogeny of the entire genus.   Research is underway on developing a molecular phylogeny for the egg-parasitic Mymaridae. This project is utilizing three different molecular approaches to look at congruence of results, and ultimately the proposal of a new classification for the group.   Work continues on a National Science Foundation grant to revise the classification of the entire superfamily Chalcidoidea. This is a massive undertaking that involves molecular, morphological and bioinformatic approaches to resolve the relationships of the superfamily, and to disseminate information on the group through electronic resources and a new book that outlines the classification and biology of the group. Members of this superfamily are among the most important natural and introduced control agents of other pest insects, and this will form a foundation for all future studies on the group. The first publication from this is an analysis of the transcriptomes across Chalcidoidea. Investigators have also obtained nexgen sequencing data for over 600 taxa that cover the breadth of the entire superfamily. The final results are in progress and work continues on an edited book to cover the entire superfamily. This research is taking a bioinformatic approach by developing a new database to house all of the taxonomic and biological information on the superfamily in TaxonWorks, which is based on a migration of data from the Universal Chalcidoidea database. This will manage data for more than 30,000 taxonomic names and over 50,000 literature references, including information on their hosts and distributions.   Besides the large molecular and genetically based revision work, members of this group regularly provide identifications of parasitoids that are directly related to biological projects worldwide.  The benefit of this work to biological control overall is enormous.       Objective 1d.  Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release.   Oporopsamma wertheimsteini was received from the BBCA and the Russian Academy of Sciences in October 2021, Seventy three adults emerged from feeding tubes (rush skeletonweed project).  Adults were placed in oviposition tubes and a thousand plus eggs were harvested.  Larvae are currently being used for impact studies on non-target plants.   Investigations of the host-specificity of the leaf- and stem-ming moth Digitivalva delaireae (Lepidoptera: Glyphipterigidae) a candidate biological control agent against Cape-ivy (Delairea odorata) by the USDA-ARS, Invasive Species and Pollinator Health Research Unit in Albany, CA revealed that neonate larvae can damage three California native members of the genus Senecio, the closest native relatives in North America in no-choice tests. However, under dual-choice and larval transfer tests, there is either little or no damage (Senecio hydrophillus) or damage with little or no pupation or adult emergence (S. aronicoides and S. triangularis). The risk to non-target plants is thus low.    The USDA-ARS in Albany, CA evaluated host plant specificity of the eriophyid mite, Aceria salsolae, a prospective biological control agent of Russian thistle (Salsola tragus), in a field garden experiment in Italy.  An addendum to a prior petition was submitted to USDA-APHIS requesting permission to release the mite.   Host specificity tests of the egg parasitoids Gryon aetherium and Trissolcus hyalinipennis, candidate biological control agents for bagrada bug, Bagrada hilaris conducted by the USDA-ARS showed that G. aetherium was capable of developing on eggs of 10 out of the 14 tested non-target species, although emergence rates were <1% for three of these species and exceeded 20% for only three species. In contrast, T. hyalinipennis emerged from 7 out of 11 non-target species and emergence rates exceeded 40% in all cases.   Two host range and safety testing projects were completed for two natural enemy species, Tamarixia radiata and Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis, imported into quarantine for classical biocontrol of Asian citrus psyllid.   A thrips from South America, Liothrips ludwigi, was tested as a candidate agent for control of three water primrose species (Ludwigia spp.) that are non-native and invasive in the western US. This thrips was able to feed, survive and reproduce on three native congeners in lab tests, precluding further consideration for biocontrol.   Two exotic parasitoids have been tested for host specificity of the bagrada bug; thus far, the parasitoids have been tested on 10 non-target stinkbug species.   A study was conducted on the microbiome of the psyllid, Arytinnis hakani, a biocontrol agent under evaluation against the French broom Genista monspessulana, and Arytainilla spartiophila attacking the Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius. Additional host specificity trials were conducted for Aprostocetus celtidis for biological control of Pyrrhalta viburni; host specificity and investigation of foraging behavior of Psyttalia ponerophaga for biological control of Bactrocera oleae; and host specificity tests in open door experiments for Chrysochus asclepiadeus on Vincetoxicum species and milkweed.   Phymastichus coffea LaSalle (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is an adult endoparasitoid of the coffee berry borer (CBB),Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), which has been introduced in many coffee producing countries as a biological control agent. To determine the effectiveness of P. coffea against H. hampei and environmental safety for release in Hawaii, we investigated the host selection and parasitism response of adult females to 43 different species of Coleoptera, including 23 Scolytinae (six Hypothenemus species and 17 others), and four additional Curculionidae. Nontarget testing included Hawaiian endemic, exotic, and beneficial coleopteran species. Using a no-choice laboratory bioassay, we demonstrated that P. coffea was only able to parasitize the target host H. hampei and four other adventive species of Hypothenemus: H. obscurus, H. seriatus, H. birmanus and H. crudiae. H. hampei had the highest parasitism rate and shortest development time of the five parasitized Hypothenemus spp. Parasitism and parasitoid emergence decreased with decreasing phylogenetic relatedness of the Hypothenemus spp. to H. hampei, and the most distantly related species, H. eruditus, was not parasitized. These results suggest that the likelihood of non-target impacts is low because there are no endemic species of Hypothenemus in Hawaii, and P. coffea could be safely introduced for classical biological control of H. hampei in Hawaii.   Objective 1e.  Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies.   Many releases and redistributions of natural enemies (millions) were carried out against pests in 2021.   Russian knapweed:  Approximately 3,750 adult Aulacidea acroptilonica were reared from galls collected from Broadwater County, MT April 2021. However, poor emergence of wasps occurred from galls.  Gall wasps were consigned to cooperators located in Carbon, Petroleum, and Teton counties, as well as the Rocky Boy’s Reservation.   Invasive hawkweeds:  Female Cheliosia urbana were collected in collaboration with CABI Switzerland between 27 April and 9 May, 2021. Approximately 200 eggs and 9 females were sent to Montana on 18 May. Due to a delay during the transport females died without laying new eggs. The few larvae that hatched during shipment died before arrival and no larvae hatched from the remaining eggs.   Hoarycress: Researchers at Montana State University are currently rearing two populations of the gall mite, Aceriadrabae. The original rearing colony has been maintained since 2016.  These mites were collected in Bulgaria by the BBCA at a higher elevation site and was supplemented in 2018. In 2021 a collection as made by the (BBCA) from north-central Greece.  Galls were received at the MSU containment facility in late May, 2021. Approximately 3,176 mites were individually transferred to plants to initiate a new colony. Four releases of the mite have been made in Montana. Two initial releases were made in 2019 in Gallatin (Bozeman) and Broadwater (Toston) counties. Due to the size of the infestation at Toston, we made additional releases at this site in 2020.  In 2021, two more release sites were added: Lake (Charlo) and Lewis & Clark (Helena) counties   Biological Control of swallow-worts: In 2021 over 1100 adult Hypena opulenta moths were released at 28 field sites in lower Michigan. The 18 field sites from the 2020 releases were monitored. The releases aim to test the importance of genetic diversity and release size for establishment success. Brown marmorated stink bug biological control. Adventive populations of the parasitoid Trissolcus japonicus were reared in the laboratory at Michigan State University. 20,000 adult parasitoids were released at 10 field sites in 2021. The releases aim to test how habitat type (monoculture vs. polyculture) influences establishment success.   Knotweed biological control: The Kyushu host race of Aphala itadori was released at 10, and the Hokkaido host race at 2 field sites in Michigan. A total of 2360 psyllids were released in summer 2021. The releases test how release frequency may impact establishment success   The shoot tip-galling fly Parafreutreta regalis (Diptera: Tephritidae), the world’s first biological control agent against Cape-ivy (Delairea odorata), was released by the USDA-ARS and cooperators in southern California at 18 sites in California. By the end of 2021, establishment was confirmed at six sites.   The leaf-feeding planthopper Megamelus scutellaris, a biological control agent of floating water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes or Pontederia crassipes) was released by the USDA-ARS with cooperation from the Division of Boating and Waterways, California Department of Parks and Recreation, at 18 sites in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of northern California between 2018 and 2020. By the end of 2021, evidence of limited, low-density establishment was obtained at three sites.   The root- and rosette-feeding weevil, Ceratapion basicorne, characterized by the USDA-ARS in Albany, CA, was approved for release in 2019. It is the first agent targeting this weed that feeds on the taproot and leaves of immature plants.  It has been released by the USDA-ARS at three sites in California, but establishment is not yet certain.   The alligatorweed flea beetle Agasicles hygrophila, collected from established and impactful populations in the southeastern U.S. was released by the USDA-ARS, Albany, CA at several sites in the southern Central Valley of California. Establishment is uncertain. The Coconut Rhinoceros  (CRB) invading Guam (2007), Hawaii (2013), Papua New Guinea (2015), and Solomon Islands (2015) are genetically different from other populations off this pest, are resistant to Oryctes nudivirus, the biocontrol agent of choice for this species, and behave differently. For these reasons, they are being referred to as the "the Guam Biotype" CRB-G.   Earlier this year positive PCR tests resulted for OrNV in field-collected CRB-G. However, a tightly controlled follow-up survey did not detect OrNV in the Guam CRB-G population. It was concluded that the positive tests were a result of lab contamination. A Guam scientist was to hand carry the parasitoid Tamarixia radiata from the CDFA insectary at UC-Riverside for release against Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorini citri, on Guam.  This has been put on indefinite hold due to travel and quarantine restrictions resulting from the Covid-19  pandemic.    Introductions of A. daanei were made into the California North Coast region from 2015-2017 for control of the Virginia creeper leafhopper, which led to some increase in biological control, but populations have not established. The first release of the root and rosette-feeding weevil Ceratapion basicorne for biological control of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) in California was made on 9 April, 2020.   The arundo shoot-tip galling wasp Tetramesa romana, released for biological control of arundo (Arundo donax), has established populations at two sites in the Central Valley of northern California.   Plans were made to continue monitoring all release sites of Aphthona spp. and Oberea erythrocephala against leafy spurge in New Mexico in 2021.  Investigators were unable to visit any sites in 2020 due to travel restrictions.    Mecinus janthiniformis for biocontrol of Dalmatian and yellow toadfax are established at the southern release site in Grant County.   Releases were made of beetles at two new sites in Grant County near Silver City, NM.  Visits to the northern insectary of M. janthiniformis or any of the Mecinus janthinus release sites did not occur in 2020 due to travel restrictions.   Visits were curtailed to the northern insectary sites of J. ivannikovi in San Juan in 2020 due to travel restrictions.  The small insectary in Chavez County (near Roswell) is still producing small numbers of early summer galls.    Aulacidea acroptilonica continues to increase exponentially at two release sites. At the original site in Rio Arriba County near El Rito, populations exceed 50/square meter over a 5 ha area.  It seems a new site is established in Otero County near La Luz, NM.  Hundreds of galls can be found near the original release locations.  Plans are to collect from both of these sites in the spring of 2021 for redistribution throughout New Mexico.     Objective 1f.  Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions.   The Russian knapweed gall midge is a relatively new biological control agent for the invasive plant, Rhaponticum repens (Russian knapweed). In Wyoming, the midge has not established well at most release sites, and where it has established, the midge creates galls on a small percentage of knapweed shoots (<10%). A hypothesis for the poor performance of the midge in Wyoming is that a lack of late summer rainfall causes a bottleneck for midge populations. Results of population surveys at an established site in central Wyoming were analyzed to evaluate this and other hypotheses. Contrary to expectations, gall midge abundance was not related to precipitation during any of the summer months. Instead, the number of galls during the summer was positively correlated with precipitation during the preceding October-May. Results suggest that gall-midge releases should be made in summers preceded by wet winters, and that successful establishment may be greater at sites that receive relatively high precipitation during October-May.   Rush skeletonweed: The root boring moth Bradyrrhoa gilveolella has been found to be established at one location in southern Idaho. Monitoring of moth populations and possible impact on plant density and plant size continued. Plant density has declined from 29.1 plants/ 0.25 m2 to 0.5 plants in 2021.   The shoot tip-galling weevil Lepidapion argentatum (Coleoptera: Cuculionidae) was evaluated in quarantine laboratory studies by the USDA-ARS to determine its impact on young (6-week old) seedlings of French broom (Genista monspessulana). Galling by females confined on shoots reduced shoot growth by 55%.   The stem weevil, Mecinus janthiniformis, released in 2008 and again in 2014 in southern California at Hungry Valley State Vehicle Recreational Area, reduced abundance of Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria dalmatica) by 99% within 5 years in annual surveys conducted by the USDA-ARS from Albany, CA.   Tests were conducted by the USDA-ARS in Albany, CA to determine whether the parasitoids Gryon aetherium and Trissolcus hyalinipennis, candidate biological control agents for bagrada bug, Bagrada hilaris, are able to locate and attack bagrada bug eggs in the soil, where the bug lays most of its eggs. Overall, more eggs were attacked by G. aetherium compared to T. hyalinipennis, indicating that G. aetherium is a more efficient parasitoid of bagrada bug eggs. Furthermore, G. aetherium was able to parasitize about 24% of naturally buried eggs, while T. hyalinipennis parasitized 0%. Subsequent tests showed that G. aetherium can more efficiently search in soil with higher clay content and larger particle size.   The effectiveness of a commercially available predatory mite, Stratiolaelaps scimitus, was tested as a biological control tool. This first involved identification of the species of bulb mites that are associated with saffron corms, and learning how to rear them in the laboratory. Lab trials were also conducted to determine what release rate was best to suppress pest problems. Through this research, it was determined that the predatory mite species tested consumed the bulb mites quickly, and the 1:5 predator/prey ration was the most effective. Results showed that combining predatory mites and an insect-killing fungus increased the effectiveness of bulb mite suppression.   From vineyard pitfall trap samples, spider gut contents were sequenced to determine their diets, and the extent to which they contribute to biological control of vine pests.   Comprehensive field evaluations of the impacts of Tamarixia radiata and native natural enemies on the invasive citrus pest, Asian citrus psyllid, were completed. Studies conducted across numerous sites and 2-3 years conclusively demonstrated that target pest densities declined by >70% since the inception of the classical biocontrol program targeting this pest.   Aulacidea acroptilonica and Jaapiella ivannikovi release sites continued to be monitored in Montana for changes inRussian knapweed density and cover. At some sites the density of Russian knapweed has declined, and plantsappeared stunted, but it is uncertain if that is due to the presence of biocontrol agents, environmental factors; or acombination of both.   Research was conducted to understand the importance of non-consumptive effects of biological control agents on their hosts/prey.  The Investigators completed a synthetic review of this topic, and are working on laboratory experimentation to examine how pea aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum, respond to cues of predation and parasitism risk.   Field studies of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema riobrave, have been conducted and this indigenous natural enemy has proven to be effective against cattle fever ticks.  Recently studies have shown that the nematode can remain viable in water droplets on vegetation for up to 3 hours.  This allows for the nematode to be passively transferred to tick infested wildlife.   Parasitism rates of Pyrrhalta viburni by Aprostocetus celtidis in the field were evaluated.   Chrysochus asclepiadeus exposed in open field tests to non-target plants and milkweeds, showed no herbivory impact.   Gryon gonikopalense was tested on Bagrada hilaris and several closely related pentatomids.   Studies have now determined that the southward spread of Tamarix leaf beetle (Diorhabda carinulata) is unlikely to be due to the evolution of increased flight tendencies at the range edge. Common environment experiments show that individual female beetles from edge populations are larger, and have a tendencies towards higher fecundity than individuals from the core of the range, suggesting those populations are evolving in response to high host abundance and weak competition. There is substantial heritable variation for the evolution of cues leading to winter diapause. Populations in the south have evolved to initiate diapause at a shorter day length than northern (core) populations.  Host choice evaluation of beetles from populations where hybrids are common between the Diorhabda species indicate they prefer tamarisk.   Host-seeking behavioral assays of the gastropod-parasitic nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita were performedagainst several different species of slugs.  Other studies included; evaluation of the virulence of different species of Phasmarhabditis against the invasive white garden snail, Theba pisana; host-seeking behavioral assays of entomopathogenic nematodes, evaluating the effects of storage time on host-seeking behavior; as well as evaluating the potential of a new nematode, Tarantobelus jeffdanielsi, in the biological control of insects. This nematode was found in association with tarantulas.       Objective 2: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests.   Objective 2a.  Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions.   Research on the citrus peelminer (Marmara gulosa) and citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) has involved collaborations for the identification of parasitoids from field studies in California and central Mexico.   Studies will be addressing relationships in the Gonatocerus species group, which include important egg parasitoids of sharpshooters in California. This will be the first molecular analysis of the group and will try to address some recent controversial taxonomic changes that have been made at the genus level.   The efficacy of floral resources for enhancing native natural enemies, predatory syrphid flies, was evaluated. Results indicated that access to floral resources that provide adult hover flies nectar and pollen in citrus orchards, were associated with increased natural enemy activity and subsequent predation of the target pest, Asian citrus psyllid nymphs, increased and pest densities declined significantly when compared to control plots lacking floral resources.   Assessments were made on the occurrence and abundance of indigenous early egg parasitoids, Trissolcus japonicus on Halyomorpha halys in the U.S.   The presence of Aculops moisonensis as a foliage herbivore was noted on Ailanthus altissima in France and Greece   Comparisons of parasitoid assemblages of Pyrrhalta viburni and Xanthogaleruca luteola were performed.   Investigations were made of the assemblage of parasitoids associated with Scolytinae in Hawaii as potential conservation biocontrol agents.  Numerous species were identified attacking various Scolytinae (but not coffee berry borer), including Euwallacea sp., and one of the putative vectors of the Ohia Rapid Death causative pathogen. Research on the citrus peelminer (Marmara gulosa) and citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) has involved assistance with the identification of parasitoids from field studies in California and central Mexico. Work continues researching the eulophid parasitoids associated with Citrus Leafminers   Work will be addressing relationships in the Gonatocerus species group, which include important egg parasitoids of sharpshooters in California. This will be the first molecular analysis of the group and will try to address some recent controversial taxonomic changes that have been made at the genus level.     Objective 2b.  Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control.   Field studies show that a new Bt cotton targeting plant bugs and thrips has minimal non-target impacts on natural enemy communities and their biological control function. A high quality meta-analysis showed that genetically modified Bt maize has little impact on non-target arthropod including natural enemy species and their biological control function.    Field studies demonstrated that a plot size of 12 x 12 m is sufficient to optimally measure non-target effects of insecticides and GM crops.   Invasive Argentine ants protect Asian citrus psyllid nymphs from natural enemies. This protective mutualism is detrimental to natural enemies and when ants are present natural enemy impacts decline significantly. Current efforts are focused on automated in-field monitoring of foraging Argentine ants. Ants use smooth PVC irrigation pipes as superhighways to move over the orchard floor from subterranean nests to tree trunks where they tend colonies of sap sucking pests, including ACP. Ants harvest honeydew and return it to the nest. In return for food ants protect pests from natural enemies. The goal of this work is to use infrared sensors attached to irrigation pipes and the internet of things to monitor ant activity in near real time to identify hot spots within orchards that require ant control. Additionally, investigations will probe the efficacy of cover crops for increasing natural enemy activity against sap sucking citrus pests, and whether or not conservation biocontrol is synergized when ants are controlled. To control ants a novel control method is being developed, biodegradable hydrogel beads to deliver ultra-low concentrations of insecticide in 25 percent sucrose solution. Ants drink this poisoned sugar water, return it to the nest where they share it with other workers and queens. This transferal process intoxicates nests and kills them. This work, planned for summer 2020, was significantly curtailed due to COVID-19 work restrictions.   Scientists in Guam continued to survey invasive ants on the islands of Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands through March 2020 at which time travel to the CNMI and elsewhere was prohibited due to Covid-19 quarantine restrictions.  However, ant surveys continued on Guam throughout the year.  This activity is part of an ongoing USDA-APHIS-CAPS funded project on the surveillance of Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and the CNMI.  A related study seeks to describe attendance behavior of Guam’s invasive ants towards aphids, scales and mealybugs commonly encountered in the Marianas, and the effects this might have on biological control agents against hemipteran plant pests.    Research into the effects of Wolbachia on parasites continues.  Populations of Bagrada hilaris and the two parasitoidsGryon gonikopalense and Trissolcus hyalinipennis were tested for the presence of the reproductive manipulator Wolbachia.   Drought continues to be an important limiting factor for the successful expansion of the gall midge, Jaapiella ivannikovi, on Russian knapweed.  Studies followed populations of gall midges through an extended drought from 2018 through 2021.   Work continued to understand the impact of RNA viruses on the efficacy of the predatory biocontrol agent Geocoris pallens.  This includes work on virus discovery, assessment of which viruses are virulent (causing decreased body condition or fecundity), and assessment of which viruses might be candidates for causing elevated expression of cannibalism by G. pallens.  This project is also conducting modeling studies to determine the impact of a cannibalism-amplifying pathogen on the population dynamics of G. pallens.   A team at the University of Wyoming focused efforts on understanding factors that limit biological control of alfalfa weevil Hypera postica. The most common parasitoid of alfalfa weevil in Wyoming is the wasp Bathyplectes curculionis, at levels as high as 50 percent of alfalfa weevils assays. However, alfalfa weevil remains quite problematic, so in 2019 the focus was shifted to evaluate which hyperparasitoids are infecting this wasp, to learn if this is disruptive to biological control in this system. Thus far, 4 different species of hyperparasitoids were found, and investigators are still working on identifying these species. Fieldwork continued in 2020, with a new methods study focused on establishing best practices for rearing parasitoids and hyperparasitoids out of B. curculionis cocoons. This methods study remains in progress and results will be summarized in next year’s report.      Objective 2c.  Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity.   From 2017-2020 spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii, and its natural enemies were sampled in cane berry fields and neighboring semi-natural habitat containing uncultivated blackberry (Rubus spp.), a widespread host of D. suzukii. Although D. suzukii was more abundant in and near semi-natural habitat than in berry fields, the parasitoids attacking it, Trichopria drosophilae and Pachycrepoideus vindemiae, were not affected by landscape context.   Planting of cover crops such as alyssum, increases natural enemy activity, especially hover flies, and densities of target pests, such as Asian citrus psyllid decline as a result.   Since 2018, studies have been evaluating the use of summer trap crops in California pistachio orchards to attract plant bugs, Leptoglossus zonatus, away from the crop canopy while young nuts are more vulnerable to bug damage.  In parallel, studies have been assessing the impact of these trap crops on supporting and improving biological control activity of the key L. zonatus egg parasitoid Gryon pennsylvanicum (Scelionidae).   Conservation biocontrol field evaluations assessing the efficacy of flowering plants (e.g., alyssum) for natural enemies (both parasitoids and generalist predators [especially hover flies]) attacking sap sucking pests, including Asian citrus psyllid, infesting citrus was supposed to have started in summer 2020. These field studies didn’t start because of COVID-19 work restrictions. Experiments were conducted using marigolds and alyssum in association with saffron plantings to determine their attractiveness to natural enemies. The plants survived well in the plants despite severe drought conditions. Many types of predators were observed on the habitat plants. Because saffron blooms late in Vermont, no thrips were attracted, but honey bees were abundant demonstrating the value of this crop for supporting pollinators. The percentage of fractional green canopy cover (percent FGCC) in the saffron beds will be measured annually every July. Results will provide insights into the effect of habitat plants on insect pests on saffron and demonstrate the attractiveness of different flowering plants to beneficials.   Three sites infested with Russian knapweed were established to test the efficacy of mowing to increase the availability of suitable host material associated with late summer southern monsoon rains. Three plots in NW, NC, and SC New Mexico were established in May 2018 and monitored through 2021.  Limited regrowth occurred in July and August 2018 and 2019 with monsoon rains occurring at only one site.  The others had almost no regrowth after mowing.      Objective 3:  Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy.   Objective 3a.  Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. The European earwig is an important omnivorous predator in many agroecosystems, and can contribute to biological control in some crops.  Studies are being conducted of earwigs in California citrus to determine if this potential biological control agent might be generating direct damage to fruit, as it is an omnivore.  We found that this species, Forficula auricularia, is unfortunately an economically important direct pest of fruit on navel oranges and clementines (Citrus sinensis and Citrus clementina), whereas it is not a pest on true mandarins (Citrus reticulata).   Two resident parasitoid species that attack spotted wing drosophila were released in cane berry fields in the central coast of California; approximately 200,000 parasitoids were released over three months.   In 2018, an adventive population of the exotic parasitoid wasp, Trissolcus japonicus was discovered in Michigan. It is considered the most promising biological control agent against the brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys). In 2020, augmentative releases of this wasp took place at 8 field sites in eastern Michigan. A total of 3,200 adult wasps were released. Trissolcus japonicus was recaptured at 3 sites, indicating reproduction in the field. There was also one recapture in 2020 from a field site where T. japonicus was released in 2019 indicating overwintering success.   Research determined the survival rate, longevity, and fecundity under various development temperatures for Gryon gonikopalense in host eggs of Bagrada hilaris in controlled conditions   Studies are attempting to characterize the volatile organic compounds from Russian knapweed found at different sites in New Mexico and determining which bioactive compounds influence the behavior of adult gall midges and wasps.   Investigations are underway for the chemical searching cues for Trichogramma papilionis. Related work looked at the effects of colony founder size on T. papilionis fitness.  Results showed that T. papilionis is attracted to volatile compounds released from sunn hemp leaves when eggs of Helicoverpa zea are laid on them. Other work demonstrated short-distance attraction to a specific blend of compounds identified, in olfactometer and greenhouse studies.   In 2021, studies continued in Hawaii on coffee berry borer.  Coffee has a multitude of scolytine (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolitinae) pests including Hypothenemus hampei, coffee berry borer, which is a coffee pest of coffee,Hypothenemus obscurus, tropical nut borer, a significant pest of macadamia nut, and Xylosandrus compactus, black twig borer, a pest of many tropical and ornamental crops. The flat bark beetles, Carthartus quadricollis (Coleoptera: Silvanidae) and Leptophloeus sp. (Coleoptera; Laemophloeidae), are known to predate on coffee berry borer and tropical nut borer but their natural history (feeding habits, reproduction and movement) are poorly understood. Studies were conducted using molecular, field and laboratory assays to examine 1) flat bark beetle reproduction and movement in coffee and the broader agricultural landscape, 2) establishment of augmentative releases for biological control, and 3) predation rates on H. hampei, and, H. obscurus and X. compactus. Various life stages of Cathartus quadricollis and Leptophloeus sp. were found in seven different plant species common to the agricultural landscape around coffee farms, suggesting these predators are feeding and reproducing on theses hosts. Molecular analysis indicated that C. quadricollis and Leptophloeus sp. predated on H. hampei, H. obscurus and X. compactus in coffee, macadamia nut, and mixed coffee-macadamia nut farms. Laboratory reared predators were discovered near release sites on coffee farms at 1, 2, and 7 weeks after augmentative releases. Predation of Cathartus quadricollis on H. hampei eggs placed inside artificial coffee berries in coffee farms was about 40 percent. Flat bark beetle predators are significant natural enemies of scolytine pests in Hawaii and have excellent potential for augmentative releases.   Objective 3b.  Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility.   Research has been conducted to develop a new and efficient rearing system for Nezara viridula (L.) and Trichopoda pennipes (Fab.) to enable the parasitoid to be used for augmentative biological control. The greatest challenge to using T. pennipes as an augmentative biological control agent is rearing a sufficient number of high-quality parasitoids for large-scale releases. Objectives of this study were to: 1) collect and efficiently rear N. viridula, 2) collect N. viridulaparasitized by T. pennipes, 3) optimize T. pennipes mating and oviposition, and 4) consistently rear high quality T. pennipes. For N. viridula, environmental conditions were determined, the diet was greatly simplified, and the best cage size and type was determined for each life stage. Mating was induced in T pennipes, N. viridula were parasitized, and parasitoid progeny were produced for multiple generations. Parasitism of T pennipes by N. viridula was compared between field and laboratory populations. This research will be described in a thesis and refereed publication.   Methods to rear the rosette weevil, Ceratapion basicorne, a biological control agent of yellow starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis, were developed by the USDA-ARS in Albany, CA.  The environmental requirements to terminate winter diapause were determined, and methods to use methoprene and 20-ecdysone to artificially initiate oviposition were discovered, which now permits rearing of multiple generations of this univoltine insect. Weevils were supplied to four non-USDA rearing laboratories, including two in Idaho and one in Colorado, as well as to the California Department of Food and Agriculture.  Evaluation of rearing methods for the Guineagrass stem-borer, Buakea kaueae has been conducted.  The project was, so far, unsuccessful in rearing this specialist herbivore insect.    A project evaluated membranes for artificial rearing of cattle fever ticks.  It was able to rear unfed nymphs to the engorged nymphal stage.   Researchers conducted a study on the impact of rearing on an alternative host on the host specificity of Psyttalia ponerophaga for biological control of Bactrocera oleae.   Experiments were performed to optimize cold storage conditions on survival and parasitism rate of Gryon gonikopalense in host eggs of Bagrada hilaris in controlled conditions   Mass-rearing methods for a parasitoid, Anagrus daanei, to be used against the Virginia creeper leafhopper (Cicadellidae: Erythroneura ziczac), were developed.  More than 30,000 parasitoids were successfully produced and reared.   Evaluations of inundative “bioherbicide” releases against leafy spurge continued.    Techniques to utilize plant volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as a tool in host plant finding (yellow starthistle) and acceptance continues.  VOCs are collected in situ from bolting leaf tissue and from flowering stems of both yellow starthistle (YST) and Malta starthistle (MST) using a portable volatile collection system.  Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is used to analyze VOC profiles of YST and MST.  A y-tube olfactometer is used to conduct behavioral bioassays on existing and potential agents.  Airflow is maintained at 400 ml/min using a flowmeters on each arm of the olfactometer.  At the end of each arm, a 1 μl aliquot of eluted VOCs is placed on filter paper as an odor source.  As techniques are improved we should be able to help determine issues associated with host plant acceptance and variability in site establishment.     Objective 3c.  Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies.   Many results have been reported under other objectives.  A few examples follow: From 2018-2020 approximately 304,000 of the cosmopolitan pupal parasitoids Trichopria drosophilae and Pachycrepoideus vindemiae were released by the USDA-ARS in Albany, CA for control of spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii, in organic cane berry fields in Watsonville, CA. Although releases did not consistently increase parasitism levels, parasitism rates on some dates were far higher than in previous years, suggesting that releases did increase parasitism levels. This project also showed that rearing and releasing these parasitoids in large numbers is feasible.   Augmentation of entomopathogenic nematodes for eradication of cattle fever ticks on infested wildlife is in implementation mode in Texas. A commercially available predatory m

Publications

Impact Statements

Common mullein is an invasive weed in the USA that causes economic and ecological damage in pastures, rangeland, and disturbed and natural areas, especially in California and Hawaii, from sea level to more than 13,000 ft elevation. ARS researchers in Sidney, MT, using molecular tools, have determined that the invasion is mostly dominated by a single genotype that exists across the western states, with origins of Belgium and Germany. This information helps land managers protect against development of herbicide resistance in the invasion, and helps researchers ensure that future biological control agents will have highest control efficacy against the most common genotypes.