Brief Summary of Minutes of Annual Meeting

Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Surveys for natural enemies in foreign countries are reported under Objective 2. To facilitate surveys of natural enemies in the USA, taxonomic materials were developed for identifying chrysopids. Adult and larval specimens of chrysopids were collected in Californias central and Owens valleys. Specimens from several populations were reared and preserved for morphological study; additional specimens were sent to colleagues for analysis of courtship songs. Survey of assassin bugs in Southern California and adjacent areas with an emphasis on the genera Zelus and Apiomerus (Reduviidae: Harpactorinae) has continued in 2009. Several species of Zelus are native to California and species in the genus are documented to feed on prey organisms such as lygus bugs, caterpillar larvae, and boll weevils. Up to date information on distribution and natural history of these species is virtually non existent. This years collecting efforts in San Bernardino, Riverside, and San Diego counties as well as Baja California, Mexico and Arizona are the first steps towards updated distribution maps of these species. In addition, our lab continues to identify and database specimens on loan from major natural history collections in the US and Mexico to generate distribution maps for the genera Apiomerus and Zelus. To date, we have databased more than 8,300 specimens of Apiomerus and 1,200 specimens of Zelus and these data are available through the online mapping interface at http://www.discoverlife.org/ . A National Science Foundation project is in progress that will expand on this collection of specimen data and re-evaluate species concepts within Apiomerus and Zelus, generate distribution maps and identification keys. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. African rue continues to spread and become more dense in southern New Mexico. Since it appears to be a likely candidate for biological control we have provided funding, equipment and technical assistance to a scientist in Turkey to collect and provide us with Thamnurgus pegani (Scolytidae) for host range testing. Ecological studies of the impact of the arundo scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis are on-going in Spain. Investigations into the field biology and impact of the scale on Arundo donax in its native range are on-going. Exploration for parasites of the light brown apple moth (LBAM) in Australia continued in 2009. In New Zealand, approximately 140 LBAM larvae were collected on the south island. On the north island, a similar number were found and little more than 50 larvae were collected in the foothills surrounding Hawke Bay. The majority of specimens were collected on scotch broom and to a lesser extent on gorse. Parasitoids emerging in quarantine from this material included Dolichogenidea tasmanica, Glyptapanteles demeter, and Goniozus sp. (family Bethylidae). Rearing of the latter two species in quarantine was unsuccessful. The olive fly is now present throughout most of the olive growing regions of California. The USDA-ARS European Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL) in Montpellier, France and the California Department of Food and Agriculture performed foreign exploration for new natural enemies of the olive fly, both directly by staff scientists and by contract with local scientists. From March to May 2009, collections of wild olives were made in the Otavi, Grootfontein region, north of Windhoek in Namibia, Africa. A species of Psyttalia, close to concolor, was the dominant parasitoid, followed by P. lounsburyi and Bracon spp. Psyttalia concolor (Namibia) remained the dominant species throughout the collection period at this location. The olive psyllid was first reported infesting olives in California summer 2007 in Orange County. Since then, it has been reported in San Diego and Riverside Counties. During April 2009, scientists traveled to eastern Spain, France, and Greece to collect olive psylla. A small number of psyllid mummies were returned to the UC Berkeley quarantine. The few parasites (Psyllaephagous sp.) emerging from these mummies were not enough to sustain a culture. Collections are expected next year, slightly later in the spring when higher numbers of psylla should be available. Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. Systematics and comparative biological work on lacewings continued on two fronts: the Chrysopidae of the USA and New World, in general. Long term priorities are on genera that have potential importance to biological control (e.g., Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes, Leucochrysa). A large publication on important chrysopid types in the National Museum of Natural History in Paris was published. Two new Chrysopodes species were described from South America, and significant, agriculturally important variation in the life histories of several Leucochrysa (Nodita) species was discovered. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers were used to confirm systematic identity and to examine genetic divergence among invasive populations of the Erythrina gall wasp from Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, and China. Samples from all invasive populations showed a complete lack of genetic diversity, and confirm that a single species is involved in the dramatic, recent range expansion. Studies on the phylogenetic relationships of Apiomerus and Zelus using molecular and morphological information are in progress. Efforts focued on both, placements of these genera within the tribes Apiomerini and Harpactorini and on species-level phylogenies within these genera. a) A morphological study in progress has resulted in a phylogeny of genera within Apiomerini, indicating that Apiomerus is monophyletic and that three South and Central American genera are among its closest relatives; b) A molecular study based on 16S and 28S data tests and evaluates species-groups within the genus Apiomerus and confirms the monophyly of the crassipes and pictipes species groups. c) A taxonomic revision including a specie-level cladistic analysis of the crassipes and pictipes species group and a manuscript are in progress. d) A molecular phylogenetic analysis of Harpactorini confirms the monophyly of the genus Zelus, places it in an exclusively Neotropical clade of Harpactorini, and tests species-group arrangements within the genus. A new research program focuses on systematics of the Asian Citrus Psyllid, the vector of Citrus Greening Disease, and its relatives within the genus Diaphorina (Psylloidea). The systematics of Diaphorina is largely unknown and investigations now focus on a molecular study based on broad sampling of Diaphorina species in South East Asia, the Near East, and South Africa. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. Every year, more effort goes into testing natural enemies for host specificity prior to applying for environmental release. The following are studies directly related to host specificity testing. Five of the known ecotypes of Diorhabda elongate, beetles that feed on saltcedar (Tamarix spp.), were maintained in quarantine. The impact of saltcedar water stress and nutrient availability on beetle fitness experiments was continued in 2009. Draft Environmental Assessments for the field release in Hawaii of Binodoxys communis (against aphids) and Fopius ceratitivorus (against medfly) were submitted. State of Hawaii permits were issued for the aphid parasitoid. Host specificity testing of Schinia cognate, a moth that feeds on rush skeletonweed, has been initiated, although mating problems and lack of oviposition under laboratory/ greenhouse conditions has impeded progress. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Many releases and redistributions were carried out against pests in 2009. Over 113,000 adults of C. achates were released at over 100 locations in Montana for spotted knapweed. Rearing procedures continue to be refined and improved to learn more about the insect and host plant. Extensive redistribution of the foliage feeding/stem boring weevil Mecinus janthinus occurred in 2009. This insect continues to have a demonstrable impact on populations of Dalmatian toadflax found throughout the entire state of Washington. Landowner and state/federal agency demand for the purple loosestrife feeding beetles Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla continued to remain high in 2009. May collections of overwintered adults generated 45,240 individuals, many of which were re-distributed in WA. Rush skeletonweed plants infested by the gall mite (Eriophyes chondrillae), gall midge (Cystiphora schmidti), and rust fungus (Puccinia chondrillina) were collected from mid-to late July for redirected movement into eastern WA counties. Approximately 3,000 lbs. of agent-infested plant material was redistributed. Limited collections and releases of Rhinusa tetrum were made in 2009. A total of 1,900 adults were introduced into Washington counties. The larvae of this beetle consume about 50% of mullein's seed crop. Data similar to these examples is available at the W2185 website for releases and distributions of natural enemies against the following: poison hemlock, Canada thistle, yellow starthistle, saltcedar (Tamarix spp.), leafy spurge, musk thistle, spotted knapweed, tansy ragwort, Russian knapweed, rush skeletonweed, dalmatian toadflax, puncturevine, Mediterranean sage, Geraldton carnation spurge, oblong spurge, purple loosestrife, and arundo. Similar release and redistribution results are available for projects against whiteflies, olive fly, Diaprepes root weevil, Western tarnished plant bug, vine mealybug, and the Asian citrus psyllid. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. Ongoing surveys were conducted to evaluate effectiveness of Rhizobius lophanthae, on controlling populations of the Asian cycad scale, Aulocaspis yasumatsui on Cycas micronesica on Guam. Studies were also conducted to evaluate predations rates of R. lophanthae at different heights above ground to understand why there is little recruitment of C. micronesica seedlings into the forest population of trees. The effects of C. achates on knapweed biomass, plant height, number of flower buds, and plant density were assessed. Spotted knapweed populations that collapsed in many areas of western Montana in 2004 due to C. achates remained at very low levels in 2009. Results indicate that seed head insects are reducing spotted knapweed seed production by about 94% in many areas of west-central Montana. Of the seed head insects, the fly, Urophora affinis, and the weevils, Larinus obtusus and L. minutus, are having the greatest impact on knapweed seed production. Results indicated that spotted knapweed should not be mowed at the bolting and flower bud stages if large populations of seed head insects, primarily Urophora affinis and Larinus spp., are present because mowing can result in the formation of new seed heads which escape the insects attack, thus allowing greater seed production. A survey of Russian thistle was begun throughout eastern Washington to ascertain the extent of Coleophora klimeschiellas occurrence, and to assess any negative influence of parasitism/predation that may be preventing the moth from being able to successfully control S. tragus. Data obtained so far indicate that several different parasitoid species attack the moth larvae and populations of the wasps may reach levels at some locations that may impact moth efficacy. Experiments to determine the impact of Rhinocyllus conicus, the thistle head weevil, on the endangered Sacramento Mountains Thistle began in 2007. Data collected this year suggest that the weevils may not develop well on C. vinaceum, probably due in part to competition with the native weevil, Lixus pervestitus and the native tephridid, Paracantha gentilis which all but eliminated seed production at several sites. Fields of small grains in Utah were sampled weekly throughout the growing season to determine levels of parasitism of Oulema melanopus by the parasitoid Tetrastichus julius. Emphasis was placed on comparing cereal leaf beetle parasitism in fields newly rotated into small grains versus fields that had been planted with small grains as well during the previous year. The outcomes of intrinsic competition between the African egg-attacking parasitoid Fopius ceratitivorus and three larval-attacking parasitoids within their host [medfly], were compared. F. ceratitivorus eliminated the co-evolved Psyttalia concolor through physiological suppression of egg development. However, F. ceratitivorus was unable to suppress development of two non-co-evolved larval parasitoids; larvae of the Asian and Australian parasitoid species physically killed F. ceratitivorus larvae inside the host. The results suggest that co-evolutionary history influences competitive superiority in this guild of medfly parasitoids. Studies examined the trophic effects of natural population variation in cabbage glucosinolate chemistry on the generalist herbivore Trichoplusia ni and its parasitoid Copidosoma floridanum. Cabbage loopers appear to be negatively affected by aliphatic glucosinolates whereas C. floridanum appears to be most negatively affected by indole glucosinolates. Three parasitoids were released for controlling giant whitefly in California: Entodononecremnus krauteri, and Idioporus affinis, and Encarsiella noysei. The latter two have spread and were recently moved to San Luis Obispo Co. where giant whitefly had reached high densities. A monitoring and evaluation study continued into 2009. The parasitoid, Idioporus affinis, has been recovered in increasing numbers from both counties. Field sites were established in 2008 to monitor the impact of Mecinus janthinus on Dalmation toadflax at a large infestation in Los Angeles County. Mecinus janthinus seems to have established well and spread several meters attacking most plants with five meters of release locations. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Field-based life table studies in Arizona cotton are being conducted to examine the comparative role of natural enemies and plant stress on Bemisia tabaci population dynamics. Studies continue on applying immunological techniques to field studies of lygus dispersal. Three protein-specific ELISAs have been optimized and reseachers are currently using multiple proteins to mark a wide variety of insects directly in the field using a standard broadcast spray rig. Our major focus in California is aimed at (1) quantifying the long range dispersal of lygus between cotton and alfalfa and (2) quantifying the short range dispersal of lygus and its natural enemies between strawberry, strip alfalfa (trap cropping), and native weeds. Reproductive responses to prey availability were analyzed for two prominent species of ladybird beetles in Utah alfalfa fields, Coccinella septempunctata L. and C. transversoguttata richardsoni Brown, in laboratory experiments in which the predators' major prey in alfalfa field, the pea aphid, was provided in varying quantities to predators. Naturally occurring egg parasitism of the light brown apple moth (LBAM) in California is being monitored at several coastal sites using sentinel egg cards. To date, two species have been found: Trichogramma platneri and T. fasciatum. This is the first record of T. fasciatum occurring in the United States. Studies of the native natural enemies attacking the citrus leafminer in the San Joaquin Valley were conducted at permanent sampling sites in Kern and Tulare Counties. Samples were collected at approximately monthly intervals from April through October 2009. The population of adult moths peaked in August and September, although a small numbers of moths were collected throughout the entire sampling period. Larval moth populations were greatest in June through September. No parasitoids were found attacking the larvae at the sample sites. However, a small percentage of the larvae (2.6 - 13%) had been preyed on by unknown arthropod predators at some sites. Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Survey work continued on invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands. This activity is part of an ongoing USDA-APHIS-CAPS funded project on the surveillance of Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and other Mariana Islands. During 2009, work has focused on understanding the degree to which cannibalism and intraguild predation affecting the omnivorous biological control agent Geocoris pallens may constrain its ability to suppress populations of Lygus hesperus feeding on cotton. Results indicate that whereas intraguild predation appears to be generally unimportant, cannibalism is a major limit to the population growth of Geocoris. Diorhabda elongata beetles feeding for as few as three days on low quality dry foliage commonly found in field populations that have been heavily defoliated, resulted in beetles exhibiting almost a complete loss of egg production that did not recover until two weeks after having access to quality foliage. Also, the Elm leaf beetle egg parasitoid, Oomyzus (=Tetrastichus) gallerucae, has been shown to attack D. elongata eggs in both choice and no-choice lab tests. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for Lygus bug control in cotton. The selectivity of flonicamid and metaflumizone for Lygus bugs were confirmed; natural enemies were largely unaffected. A meta-analysis of laboratory and field studies on the non-target effects of Bt transgenic crops showed that laboratory toxicity studies accurately or conservatively predict field level effects of Bt crops. Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. Preliminary field studies were conducted to assess the efficacy of methyl salicylate (MeSA - Pred-a-Lure) as an attractant for natural enemies in cotton. Studies were conducted to examine the movement of lygus bugs and associated natural enemies between alfalfa, cotton, lesquerella (a desert oil-seed crop) and guayule (a desert latex-source crop). Preliminary results indicated that lygus and several species of predators readily moved from senescing lesquerella into cotton but not guayule. Studies are underway to examine lygus and natural enemy movement between cotton and alfalfa. Statistical procedures are being developed to quantify long range dispersal using protein mark-capture technology. Studies are underway to examine the movement of lygus bugs and associated natural enemies between alfalfa strips planted within an organic strawberry field. Studies indicated that lygus and several species of predators remain in the alfalfa trap crop and do not disperse far (e.g., < 5.0-m) into the adjacent strawberries. Glassy winged sharpshooter-specific ELISA and PCR assays have been developed that detect predation events on the various lifestages of GWSS. These assays are being used to probe the guts of individual predators of GWSS collected over a two year period from a citrus field that was exposed to three different irrigation regimes. Studies are underway to evaluate the effectiveness of using companion flower plantings to control European corn borer in peppers as a replacement for traditional insecticide programs. To accomplish this objective the following replicated treatments were prepared: 1) peppers grown with flowers, 2) peppers grown with flowers and treated with spinosad once a week based on backlight catches, 3) peppers grown with flowers and treated with spinosad every two weeks based on blacklight catches, 4) peppers grown without flowers but treated with spinosad once a week based on blacklight catches, 5) peppers grown without flowers and treated with spinosad every two weeks based on blacklight catches, and 6) peppers grown without flowers or treated with spinosad.This project utilized plantings of dill, coriander and buckwheat as companion planting with bell peppers for the purpose of observing the impact on fruit damage caused by European corn borer. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. Researchers at the NY-CUAES (in collaboration with colleagues in Mexico and Brazil) continue to evaluate the potential of chrysopids for mass-rearing and release in the U.S.A. and Latin America. Emphasis in Mexico is on Ceraeochrysa species against homopteran pests of citrus; that in Brazil focuses on Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes and Leucochrysa species against homopteran pests of fruit and vegetable crops. In all cases, the larvae carry camouflaging debris on their dorsa. To investigate predation strategies and natural history of species of the genus Zelus, lab cultures were kept of two species of Zelus and one species of each of Apiomerus, Sinea, and Pselliopus. The culture of Zelus tetracanthus is currently being set up for natural history data collection and bioassays that might shed light on the involvement of pheromones in the mating behavior of this species. Investigations were initiated on predation behavior and maternal care in species of Apiomerus and has focused on a comparative morphological study of structures involved in these behaviors and included several species of Apiomerus and other Apiomerini. Research continues towards a long-term goal of evaluating the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, for improved foraging efficiency and augmentative biological control of the twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae, on greenhouse vegetable and floricultural crops. During the past year work was performed on two aspects related to predator foraging efficiency: (1) influence of plant architecture, prey distribution, and location of predator release; and (2) effect of artificial selection for enhanced foraging traits on distribution of predators and prey consumption. In a greenhouse experiment, P. persimilis consumed more prey on multi-leafed cucumber plants with smaller leaves than on plants with two larger leaves. Releasing predators at the bottom of plants closer to spider mite infestations resulted in higher prey consumption and predator oviposition than when predators were released at the top of the canopy further away from the prey patch. Previous reports established genetic lines of P. persimilis which exhibit enhanced levels of one or more of four foraging traits: prey consumption, predator dispersal, conversion efficiency (number of predator eggs laid per prey consumed), and response to prey-induced olfactory cues. Current studies are comparing the high prey consumption and high predator dispersal lines with the unselected colony of P. persimilis to determine whether selection improves local (within-prey patch or within plant) and regional (among multiple plants) pest suppression. Early results from an experiment in which a single P. persimilis female was released into a prey patch on a 6-leafed cucumber plant in which either one leaf or all leaves contained prey eggs suggest that predators selected for high consumption produced more total progeny (implying more predation) than the line selected for high dispersal or the unselected colony. Data on prey consumption are pending. The biology of the arundo wasp, arundo scale and arundo fly have been completed. Biology's for the wasp and scale have been published. Objective 11. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Release methodology for D. elongata against saltcedar still has not been perfected. Many of the failures at establishing beetles may be a result of several things, including the number of beetles in the initial release, cage requirements to prevent dispersal, control of predators etc. Techniques to improve the establishment of D. elongata have been improved, however, site by site differences dictate the need for further consideration. Evaluations were completed on whether biological control of western flower thrips (WFT) using the predatory mite, Amblyseius cucumeris, could reduce or prevent the spread of the thrips-vectored tospovirus, Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), equally as well as conventional chemical control (spinosad, Conserve®) for WFT. Results of a multi-year greenhouse experiment in which healthy vining tomatoes were exposed to TSWV either by releasing WFT adults over a tomato crop with a portion of the plants virus-infected, or by releasing viruliferous thrips over a virus-free crop, showed that tomato yields were not affected by thrips management tactic. Also, there was no significant difference between biological and chemical control in the length of time that plants showed symptoms. However, the proportion of infected plants was marginally greater with biological control compared to chemical control at the mid-point of the experiment; differences were not significant thereafter. Findings suggest that augmentative biological control of WFT using A. cucumeris has the potential for preventing spread of TSWV with no greater risk to tomato plants than by using chemical control on commercial greenhouse crops. Methods to improve mass rearing of the arundo wasp have been tested in 2009. Large scale production of a stem galling wasp has proven to be challenging. Plant quality in term of stem hardness, plant tissue osmolality, nitrogen levels, and plant phenology have all been investigated to improve rearing. Objective 12. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. Inundative strategies continue to be used successfully against small patches of leafy spurge. Aphthona lacertosa and A. nigriscutis were spread evenly over patches of leafy spurge at densities of 160 beetles/m2. As in previous years, over 95% control of above-ground biomass was seen in the year after release especially on upland sites. Beetles seem to stay in high numbers even three to four years after release despite almost non-existent leafy spurge populations. The last remaining substantial population of leafy spurge in New Mexico has been controlled. Fewer than 1 stem/ m2 remain in the majority of the original infestation. Aphthona remain in good numbers and are still collectable; however not in numbers previously collected. Field studies are underway to determine the impact of augmentation of the arundo wasp to increase to increase field impacts. Methods have been developed for ground and aerial release of the arundo wasp to test augmentation strategies. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control. Objective 13. Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents. Anecdotal observations by extension agents indicate that Rodolia pumila introduced to Tau Island for control of Seychelles scale, Icerya seychellarum, has established and is providing good control. Quantitative assessment of the impact of R. pumila on I. seychellarum could not be completed during the reporting period. It had to be postponed due to transportation difficulties and gas shortages on the island. Long-term censusing of lady beetle species assemblages occurring in alfalfa fields of Utah was continued to evaluate effects of the introduction and establishment of the exotic lady beetle, Coccinella septempunctata, on native coccinellids. Studies showed that competitor-free space mediates the environmental impact of an introduced braconid parasitoid. Wasps that oviposit in a non-target gall-fly on lantana can escape lethal competition with another braconid that results when there is multi-parasitism in target tephritid fruit flies. Objective 14. Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. In April 2009 about 30 quarantine personnel on Guam, the CNMI, the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were trained in the importance of natural enemies in regulating populations of invasive insect pests in Micronesia, with special recognition of the potential impact of Hemiptera and ants if not intercepted or detected at or shortly after introduction to the islands. Regulations for importing natural enemies and prohibiting the entry of potential pests were discussed, along with methods for inspection and enforcement of regulations. This activity was performed as part of an annual PPQ workshop hosted by the University of Guam and sponsored jointly by the Secretariat of the Pacific Commission, the Guam Department of Agriculture and USDA-APHIS.Film footage was obtained documenting the impact of the Ta'u Island Seychelles scale biological control project and recording residents' perceptions of the project's outcome. The film will be edited for broadcast on local television to portray for the public an example of the potential benefits of sound biological control practice. Eleven seminars or presentations on the biology and damage of the Diaprepes root weevil, Asian citrus psyllid, and other invasive pests were given to various grower, industry, and scientific groups. A training course on pest control, including biological control, was offered to county staff. The course was designed to prepare trainees for an exam required by commissioners in order to be promoted. The course was offered in Riverside and Sacramento and included four speakers. To reduce reliance on FQPA Priority I insecticides and synthetic pyrethroids in canning peach production, IPM techniques were implemented and demonstrated in late-harvested canning peach orchards in northern San Joaquin Valley of California. Outreach on IPM and biological control was made through on-farm training, informal meetings, seminars, and field days.