Brief Summary of Minutes of Annual Meeting

Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Surveys for natural enemies in foreign countries are reported under Objective 2. Concurrent observations in American Samoa of the coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor, found densities had declined markedly from earlier surveys. Some predators that had established on Tutuila also colonized Tau Island, but other species did not. During this survey Pseudoscymnus anomalus, was widespread on Tau for the first time, suggesting possible fortuitous biological control. The erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae, continues to cause moderate to severe damage to Erythrina variegata trees in American Samoa. The Hawaii Department of Agriculture has been researching biological controls for this pest and recently began releases of a parasitoid in Hawaii. Depending on the progress of that program, the availability of parasitoids, and local stakeholder inputs, American Samoa may proceed with introductions in the coming year. Adult and larval specimens of chrysopids were collected, especially in Californias central valley. Specimens from several populations were reared and preserved for morphological study; additional specimens were sent to colleagues for analysis of courtship songs. A one year survey of natural enemies of Arundo donax has been conducted on the Rio Grande River from Del Rio to Brownsville, TX. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. The following exploratory research was conducted: Exploration for parasites of the light brown apple moth in Australia continued in 2008. Parasitoids are under evaluation at the UC Berkeley quarantine. Bactrocera oleae was collected in Namibia, Africa. Several kilos of collected fruit produced high numbers of olive fruit fly and attendant parasitoids. A species of Psyttalia, close to concolor, was the dominant parasitoid, followed by P. lounsburyi and Bracon spp. Collections of Lygus spp. were made for the first time in Morocco, Africa, by the USDA-ARS European Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL). Peristenus relictus was reared from collections and a culture was initiated at the EBCL. It is hoped that this strain should have a better chance at establishment in the southern San Joaquin Valley (CA) due to a better climatic match between this part of California and north Africa. Vine mealybug was collected in the Catalonia region of Spain. Over 400 females were successfully hand-carried and placed into culture at the UC Berkeley quarantine facility. Diaprepes root weevil was collected in Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Four species of parasitoids were recovered: Quadrastichus haitiensis, Barycarpus fennahi, Fidiobia citri, and Aprostocetus vaquitarum. Cooperative projects with colleagues in Brazil (Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense), Mexico (INIFAP), and Colombia (CIAT) continued. Emphasis in 2008 was on the seasonal occurrence and abundance of chrysopids in papaya orchards on the coast of central Brazil. A large number of species were collected, their taxonomy was determined and a report is being prepared for publication. Foreign exploration for natural enemies of A. donax has been conducted throughout the native range in Mediterranean Europe. Four agents have been selected and exported to U.S. quarantine facilities. Studies have been initiated in Spain to determine the field ecology and impact of the Arundo scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis on A. donax. No-choice oviposition and development tests with the seed-feeder C. turbatus were conducted in 2008. Tests were established with 13 test species, including 11 native to North America. Apart from those laid in L. draba, only one other egg was found, in the native North American Draba nemorosa, but no larvae developed. In contrast to previous years, all L. draba control plants were attacked and therefore valid and more eggs than usual were laid. An oogenesis test was established in 2008 to investigate whether P. wrasei that developed on the native North American Barbarea orthoceras and were maintained constantly on the same test plant species, would be able to produce eggs. Results revealed that beetles originating from B. orthoceras had significantly reduced feeding rates and laid significantly fewer eggs compared to beetles originating from and fed on L. draba. Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. The phylogeographic relationships of several taxa including potential biological control agents (e.g. Ceutorynchus species for garlic mustard) have been evaluated. Three species (Ceutorynchus scrobicolis) show genetic differentiation at a relatively small spatial scale (over 10s of km), indicating restricted dispersal, while the other two (C. roberti and C. alliaria) show differentiation over a much larger spatial scale, indicating greater dispersal abilities. Additionally, it was demonstrated that individuals of C. scrobicolis being used for host-specificity testing were collected from areas that can be considered single populations, genetically, making the entire area suitable for collection for release into North America, should a release be eventually approved. Systematics and comparative biological work continues on two fronts: the Chrysopidae of the USA and New World, in general. Long term priorities are on genera that have potential importance to biological control (e.g., Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes, Leucochrysa). Focus is on (a) a large neotropical genus in the tribe Chrysopini (Chrysopodes) and (b) generic level analysis of the large (probably paraphyletic) tribe Leucochrysini. Primary emphasis this year was analysis of type specimens held in European and North American museums; this effort is crucial to elucidating the taxonomy of the New and Old World chrysopids. Custom microsatellites for Arundo donax and the Arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana have been developed. The population structure of both A. donax and T. romana have been completed for the native range and the areas of introduction in North America. The Mediterranean coast of Spain appears to be the origin of the A. donax clone which is invasive in the Rio Grande Basin. Detailed morphological studies and the mitochondrial DNA based phylogeny of Rhinusa spp. have revealed a strong divergence between the two stem gall weevils, Rhinusa pilosa from L. vulgaris and R. brondelii from L. genistifolia which is in turn supported by clear differences in the biology of the two species. Genetic work carried out on several Mecinus species and populations indicate that the same level of differentiation and specialization occurs within this group of weevils. Mecinus heydeni is associated with L. vulgaris and M. laeviceps with L. genistifolia. A third undescribed species occurs in Macedonia on L. dalmatica ssp. Macedonica. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. Every year, more effort goes into testing natural enemies for host specificity prior to applying for environmental release. Examples follow. Host range testing between 6 different populations (from Greece, China, and Uzebekistan) continued testing the impact of saltcedar water stress on Diorhabda elongata fitness Host range of medfly parasitoids Fopius caudatus and Fopius ceratitivorus from Kenya were further delineated. F. caudatus appears restricted to Ceratitis; no non-target species are attacked. The gall mite, Aceria drabae (Acari: Eriophyidae), received from collaborators in Greece and strains from Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia, were evaluated. Host specificity tests were completed for the Greek population of the mite. Eighty plant species and numerous varieties/cultivars were tested in all. Aceria drabae was specific to its intended host Lepidium draba. Host specificity testing of a flower moth, Schinia cognate (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has been initiated, although mating problems and lack of oviposition has impeded progress. TAG petitions for release of the Arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana and the Arundo scale, Rhizaspdiotus donacis were submitted in 2008. TAG has recommended release of the Arundo wasp and review of the Arundo scale is pending. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Many releases and redistributions were carried out against pests in 2008. D. elongata from Greece were released at several sites in New Mexico against Tamarix spp.; those from Fukang, China, released near Lake Arthur, NM seem to have disappeared despite selection for beetles that can thrive under shorter day lengths. The rust fungus, Puccinia jaceae var. solstitialis, has been released as a biological control of yellow starthistle. In 2008, release material was provided to the Oregon Department of Agriculture where climate may be less limiting than California. Additional releases in the California are not anticipated as the fungus lifecycle seems poorly adapted to California climate such that a significant impact on yellow starthistle is unlikely. Releases of the Crete biotype of salt cedar leaf beetle, Diorhabda elongata, occurred in 2008 at nursery sites in Glenn and Tehama (California) counties in an effort to improve collection, transportation, release, and monitoring techniques for a redistribution program planned for 2009. Releases of the leaf beetles, Galerucella pusilla and G. calamarense, against L. salicaria, continued in Californias northern Sacramento Valley where the beetles have been difficult to establish. Inaccessible cliff lines in Guam were photographed from the air and analyzed using Adobe Photoshop to determine damage by the Asian cycad scale. R. lophanthae has been introduced from Hawaii to help control the scale. A recent expansion of the rearing effort on the root weevil, Cyphocleonus achates, resulted in a 150% increase in production. Over 77,000 adults of C. achates were released at over 80 locations in Montana in 2008. Over 10,000 adult Psyttalia nr. concolor (Namibia) were released at seven locations and 510 adult P. lounsburyi (Kenya) at three locations in northern and central California in 2008. The parasitoid, P. relictus, has now been recovered three consecutive years since last released into an organic strawberry farm in the Monterey Bay region of California. Preliminary observations suggest that the establishment of Rodolia pumila on Tau Island may finally provide relief from the chronic high density infestations of Icerya seychellarum on breadfruits, one of the islands most important staple food crops. Redistribution of natural enemies for biological control continued in Washington State for L. dalmatica, Centaurea spp., L. salicaria, Chondrilla juncea, S. tragus, V. thapsus, H. perforatum, A. alstroemeriana, C. arvense, Senecio jacobaea, Cynoglossum officinale, and Centaurea solstitialis. Anagyrus loeki was reared and released against papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) in infested areas in Hawaii. Releases have been conducted in major papaya growing areas on Oahu and Hawaii and plumeria growing areas on Molokai. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. The variability in success of open field Diorhabda elongata beetle releases in different regions of the western United States is unexplained. A common garden of saltcedar from 12 different locations in the western US was established at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Artesia, NM. Beetle fitness was significantly different between T. parviflora and T. ramosissima and between some of the T. ramosissima collections suggesting that tree genetics is important. The Cecidomyiid, Asphondylia prosopidis, a North American native, has been identified as a potentially useful agent on honey mesquite in South Africa. Studies are determining the geographic range, biotic potential, ecological relationships and rearing methods of the gall fly. Initial data indicate there are actually four species in this bud gall complex. Six pairs of field sites in CA were established for the future release and evaluation of Ceratapion bassicorne, a new beneficial rosette weevil that will be hopefully be approved for use against yellow starthistle in 2009. A greenhouse study on the combination of simulated mowing and infection with the systemic pathogen, Albugo candida, on perennial pepperweed growth and survivorship was performed. Plants infected with the pathogen were less able to recover from mowing than plants not infected. A spotted knapweed population crash that occurred in one area in 2004 due to C. achates remained at very low levels in 2008. Similar declines in knapweed density following dramatic increases in the C. achates population are now occurring in other areas of Western Montana. Parasitism of the cereal leaf beetle (Oulema melanopus) by the parasitoid Tetrastichus julius (Eulophidae) was determined throughout the growing season by sampling fields of small grains (barley, wheat, and oat) farmed by cooperators in northern Utah. The intensity of parasitism of cereal leaf beetle larvae was also evaluated as influenced by tillage practice, through field experiment. Field studies were continued to evaluate the effectiveness of seed-feeding insect biological control agents (Urophora quadrifasciata, Larinus minutus, and Sphenoptera jugoslavica), now widely established in the west desert of Utah on the noxious weed, squarrose knapweed. Knapweed populations were sampled to compare both spatial variation as well as seasonal patterns in the intensity of attack among these agents, and to determine patterns of shared use of individual seedheads by the two seed predators (U. quadrifasciata and L. minutus). Laboratory experiments and field observations made between 2006 and 2008 were used to quantify the impacts of the stem mining weevil, Mecinus janthinus, on the two morphotypes in northeastern WA. M. janthinus adults fed more heavily on broad-leaved than on narrow-leaved plants in the field throughout the season. In the laboratory, weevils made more oviposition scars on the broad-leaved form and contributed to lower seed capsule production for those plants, especially at higher experimental densities. Aboveground biomass ratios for broad-leaved plants were lower than for narrow-leaved plants both in the laboratory and field. These study results indicate that M. janthinus exhibited greater impacts on the broad-leaved than on the narrow-leaved Dalmatian toadflax morphotype. A follow up study of the bionomics of the gall midge, Cystiphora schmidti (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) against Rush Skeletonweed, indicated significant impact of predators and parasitoid on the population development of the midge. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Studies on the native natural enemies attacking the citrus leafminer in the San Joaquin Valley were conducted at permanent sampling sites established in Kern and Tulare Counties (CA). Samples were collected at approximately monthly intervals from February through November 2008. The population of adult moths peaked in October and November, although a small number of moths were collected throughout the entire sampling period. Larval populations were greatest in October and November. No parasitoids were found attacking the larvae at the sample sites. Naturally occurring egg parasitism of the light brown apple moth is being monitored at several coastal California sites using sentinel egg cards. To date, two species have been found: Trichogramma platneri and T. fasciatum. This is the first record of T. fasciatum occurring in the United States. Egg parasitism varied widely by site and by host plant. After nearly four years of monitoring the avocado lace bug it was determined that populations of the bug have low outbreak potential. No natural enemies (mainly egg parasitoids) were discovered in Mexico for possible use in classical biological control program. As a result, this project was discontinued. Ovarian development and oviposition dynamics of two prominent species of lady beetle in Utah alfalfa fields, Coccinella septempunctata L. and C. transversoguttata richardsoni Brown, were analyzed in laboratory experiments in which the predators major prey in alfalfa fields (pea aphids) were provided in large numbers and then removed. Intraguild predation of eggs among lady beetles that occur in alfalfa fields in Utah was investigated for two species (Coccinella septempunctata and Harmonia axyridis; Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) when eggs from allopatric versus sympatric populations were provided to intraguild predators. Field-based life table studies in Turkish cotton demonstrated that predators and parasitoids of Bemisia tabaci inflict high levels of mortality on immature stages of the pest. Parasitism by aphelinid parasitoids was identified as the key factor and both parasitism and predation supplied high levels of irreplaceable mortality. Feasibility studies were conducted to determine if protein markers can be substituted for pest-specific ELISA and PCR assays for the molecular detection of prey in predator guts. Preliminary results showed that prey marking can be a powerful method for the immunological detection of predation and can be used to study various aspects of predator feeding behavior. Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Diorhabda elongata beetles feeding for as few as three days on low quality dry foliage, commonly found in field populations that have been heavily defoliated, resulted in beetles exhibiting almost a complete loss of egg production that did not recover until two weeks after having access to quality foliage. Surveys continued on invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands, to determine their disruptive potential to biocontrol agents. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for whitefly control. Results confirmed the selectivity of spiromesifen and spirotetramat for whitefly; natural enemies were largely unaffected. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for Lygus bug control in cotton. The selectivity of flonicamid and metaflumizone for Lygus bugs were confirmed; natural enemies were largely unaffected. A meta-analysis was completed using existing laboratory and field studies from the literature comparing the impact of Bt crops (cotton, maize, potato, eggplant, rice) to non-Bt crops on the life history performance and abundance of nontarget arthropods. Based on 134 laboratory studies and 63 field studies Bt crops, and the protein toxins they expres, are highly selective to the targeted pests. An associated study showed that laboratory toxicity studies are good predictors of expected field level effects of Bt crops. Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. Research in Yolo County, CA compared pest and natural enemy densities in processing tomato fields with or without an adjacent hedgerow of native plants. The hedgerows were designed to provide a continuous supply of floral resources for beneficial insects. Adults of the consperse stink bug, Euschistus conspersus Uhler, overwintered in hedgerows and its nymphs developed on seeds and fruit of certain plants. Scelionid egg parasites of stink bugs were also recovered in the hedgerows. However, there was no significant effect of hedgerows on stink bug counts or rates of egg parasitization in tomato fields. The impact of cover cropping on Trichogramma spp. parasitizing Helicoverpa zea on seed corn was investigated. They may invade crop areas following population growth on cover crops such as sunn hemp and buck wheat. Studies were continued to identify and quantify the population dynamics and seasonality of natural enemies associated with two new crops for the desert, lesquerella and guayule. Lesquerella in particular harbors a large diversity of generalist predators and parasitoids and could be potentially important source of these beneficial arthropods for cotton and other crops. Studies were initiated to examine the movement of lygus bugs and associated natural enemies between alfalfa strips planted within an organic strawberry field. Preliminary results indicated that lygus and several species of predators remain in the alfalfa trap crop and do not disperse far into the adjacent strawberries. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. Augmentative releases of Trichogramma papilionis against Helicoverpa zea in seed corn and sweet corn are being investigated in Hawaii. Commercial scale releases are being conducted and Pioneer HiBred has set up a rearing facility for releases in their facilities. Researchers at the NY-CUAES (in collaboration with colleagues in Mexico and Brazil) continue to evaluate the potential of chrysopids for mass-rearing and release in the U.S.A. and Latin America. Emphasis in Mexico is on Ceraeochrysa species against homopteran pests of citrus; that in Brazil focuses on Chrysopodes and Leucochrysa species against homopteran pests of fruit and vegetable crops. In all cases, the larvae carry camouflaging debris on their dorsa. Biological studies of two candidate agents for Arundo donax have been completed. Field studies have also been initiated to assess the potentially complementary or competitive interactions among different biological control agents attacking the reproductive parts of Russian knapweed. In particular, the impact of a tephritid gall fly, a potential biological control agent, has been assessed on the seed output of Russian knapweed in the presence and absence of the gall wasp A. acroptilonica and the gall midge J. ivannikovi. It appears that the tephritid gall fly, in combination with the gall wasp has a complementary effect on seed output, but that it does not further increase herbivore impact when combined with the already highly effective gall midge. Objective 11. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Studies have been reported under many of the other objectives. A few examples follow: Five of the known ecotypes of D. elongata (against saltcedar) are being maintained in the New Mexico State University quarantine lab. Populations from the following locations are in culture: Crete, Greece; Possidi, Greece; Sfax, China; Fukang, China, and Karshi, Uzebekistan. Mass rearing and mass application methods are being developed in collaboration with USDA-APHIS, Mission Plant Protection and Diagnostics Laboratory and Aircraft and Equipment Operations at Moore Airbase, Edinburg, TX. Methods are being evaluated for mass rearing, collection and release of the diaspid scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis. Objective 12. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. Inundative strategies continue to be used successfully against small patches of leafy spurge. Aphthona lacertosa and A. nigriscutis were spread evenly over patches of leafy spurge at densities of 160 beetles per square meter. As in previous years, over 95 percent control of above-ground biomass was seen in the year after release, especially on upland sites. Beetles seem to stay in high numbers even three to four years after release despite almost non-existent leafy spurge populations. Research has been initiated to evaluate the impacts of the Arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana in an augmentative release program. Aerial and ground release methods, integrated with selective mechanical and chemical controls, are being investigated. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control. Objective 13. Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents. Long-term censusing of lady beetle species assemblages occurring in alfalfa fields of Utah was continued to evaluate effects of the introduction and establishment of the exotic lady beetle, Coccinella septempunctata, on native coccinellids. The economic impact of Arundo donax on water supplies has been documented by economists at Texas A&M University. As part of their study they have analyzed the economic benefits of a biological control program. Objective 14. Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. In March 2008 about 30 quarantine personnel on Guam, the CNMI, the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were trained in the importance of natural enemies in regulating populations of invasive insect pests in Micronesia, with special recognition of the potential impact of aphids and ants if not intercepted or detected at or shortly after introduction to the islands. Three seminars on the biology and damage of the Diaprepes root weevil were given to various grower, industry, and scientific groups in CA. Two presentations were made to K-12 students and one presentation to an undergraduate class at UC Berkeley on the threat of invasive species to California agriculture. A three-hour short course on biological control was given to CA county biologists as preparation for a licensing exam. Three outreach talks were given to Colorado weed biological control programs in 2008. Presentations were made to the Colorado Weed Network (50 participants), the Colorado Watersheds Conference (30 participants) and the North Fork Weed Cooperative (15 participants).