Duration: 10/01/2005 to 09/30/2010

Administrative Advisor(s):

NIFA Reps:

Non-Technical Summary

Statement of Issues and Justification

Statement of the Problem.

The growing demand for food and fiber will place greater strain on agricultural production and environmental stewardship. Agrochemicals will remain fundamental as integrated pest management tools to assure an abundant food supply. Inevitably, a significant portion of applied agrochemicals may be lost to the surrounding environment, where they can adversely affect human and environmental health. The use of conventional and emerging crop protection chemistries in agricultural and urban pest management will require research on the fate and effects of agrochemicals, along with mitigation strategies, to minimize risks to humans and the environment. Replacement of the W-45 multistate research project will enable multistate collaborations to more effectively advance and transfer science to agricultural and regulatory stakeholders, who require solutions to complex human and environmental health concerns that are beyond the scope of any individual State Agricultural Experiment Station or ARS.


Justification.

Over the next quarter century, the world's population is expected to increase by an unprecedented 90 million people per year. The growing demand for food and fiber will place a greater pressure on agricultural production and growers needs for affordable and efficacious pest management. The need to increase production while reducing associated pressures of agrochemical use on natural ecosystems and human health will pose a difficult challenge for scientists in all areas of basic and applied agricultural research. Although it will be important to provide growers with a variety of biologically-based, sustainable production alternatives, the use of agrochemicals will remain essential in pest management. Exotic weeds and weeds with herbicide resistance or environmental tolerance can invade open habitats very rapidly. Understanding the effects of agrochemicals on target and non-target species will improve our ability to predict and integrate current and potential pest management strategies, providing environmentally sound and cost effective approaches to pest management. These approaches will lead to reduced application of pesticides.

Agrochemical use currently exceeds 500 million kg each year in the U.S. alone (Kiely, et. al., 2004). An unquantifiable but considerable portion of this total does not reach or leaves its target; this proportion may contaminate air or water, may be transformed in the soil/air/water system, and may come into contact with non-target biological systems. The continued responsible use of conventional and emerging crop protection chemistries will require a mechanistic understanding of their fate and effects (beginning at the molecular level) and integration of this basic knowledge to develop a fuller understanding of their behavior in agroecological systems.

The W-45 project focuses on building collaborations between land-grant extension specialists, researchers, USDA-ARS scientists, and institution representatives from basic and applied research disciplines to identify and develop appropriate research and strategies for minimizing adverse impacts to humans and the environment resulting from agrochemical use. This multidisciplinary effort enables technology transfer and opportunities for region-wide collaboration on complex environmental fate and effects issues that are beyond the scope of a single State Agricultural Experiment Station or ARS. The outcomes of the W-45 project are deliverables that can be utilized by regulatory agencies, growers, agrochemical manufacturers and applicators, and regional agricultural commodity groups for making prudent pesticide management decisions. In partnership with CSREES, other research institutions and agencies, and the Cooperative Extension Service, replacement of the W-45 multistate research project will further enable meaningful multistate collaborations for problem-solving on high-priority research topics (as identified in CSREES Strategic Plan for FY 2004-2009) while enhancing environmental stewardship.

A better understanding of off-target movement via volatilization, runoff, and leaching, and the acute and sublethal effects at the ecosystem level are essential for determining risks to biota in the surrounding environment and for characterizing human occupational and non-occupational exposures. Currently, quantifying exposure remains the weak link for evaluating risks associated with human and environmental health. Collaborations between W-45 scientists at the University of California (Davis and Riverside), Washington State extension specialists, and state health regulators will have enormous implications in addressing occupational exposures. This work will include environmental and biological monitoring of a variety of work tasks of pesticide handlers and harvesters of treated crops. These data will serve to clarify the extent of risk resulting from exposure and provide exposure data for more objective establishment of field entry intervals and the effectiveness of personal protective equipment. This project will also evaluate the adequacy of commercial blood cholinesterase kits used by clinical testing laboratories for monitoring farm worker exposure.

Information sharing will be vital for state health agencies to formulate appropriate baseline exposure criteria and risk management policies. Off-target fumigant emissions remain a primary source of non-occupational exposure at the individual and community health level as underscored in the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) community health studies at Lompoc, California, which suggested an increased incidence of certain respiratory illnesses and lung and bronchus cancers in the Lompoc area (Wisniewski et al., 1998). To reduce non-occupational inhalation exposures, W-45 members at the USDA-ARS in Riverside, CA and the University of Florida are taking leading roles in developing novel technologies to reduce atmospheric emissions of fumigants while providing adequate dispersion in the root zone to achieve good pest-control efficacy. Reducing volatilization by covering the soil surface during fumigation with plastic tarps or with newly-developed water soluble, biodegradable, and non-toxic reactive surface barriers will have enormous benefits for crop production practices throughout the United States by increasing fumigant efficacy, reducing chemical use, and substantially minimizing inhalation exposures to surrounding communities.

Monitoring studies have indicated widespread contamination of surface water and groundwater by herbicides and herbicide transformation products throughout the United States. Many states remain hesitant to register new pesticides unless explicit chemical leaching and runoff studies are performed using soil types and conditions typical of the region. Collaborative research among W-45 members will develop regional data on the environmental fate and movement of nutrients and new pesticides and their transformation products that are not currently available to regulatory agencies. This information will be important in accelerating and evaluating the conditional registration of environmentally safer alternative herbicides, and will aid in the development of best management practices to reduce the potential for surface and ground water contamination. This project will further advance water quality protection through education opportunities such as the Integrated Soil Nutrient and Pest (iSNAP) Water Quality Education Project and will provide technical training and resources to agricultural professionals on nutrient management and integrated pest management practices that protect water quality.

Turf management (including golf courses, parks and recreation facilities, sports fields, and home residential lawns) typically involves very intensive agrochemical use patterns. Researchers at Mississippi State University will collaborate with USDA-ARS scientists in St. Paul, MN to identify environmental factors and management practices influencing agrochemical losses from turf by runoff and to develop deterministic models to estimate the impact of new and existing chemistries on aquatic systems under suburban management practices. The data gained from this research can be used to identify which compounds exceed the environments natural attenuative capacity and to develop best management practices to reduce the movement of these pesticides to non-target aquatic systems.

There is growing evidence that historical and current use pesticides may undergo atmospheric long-range transport (including trans-Pacific atmospheric transport) and deposition to remote high latitude and high elevation ecosystems in the U.S. These pesticides may originate in North America or may be present in Eurasian air masses. This project will measure historical and current use pesticides to study the fate of these compounds in sensitive, high elevation ecosystems. Research results will influence global regulatory strategies on the use of pesticides in developing countries and will aid the U.S. National Park Service in managing exposure to pesticides due to long-range atmospheric transport.

The environmental fate of airborne organic pollutants, i.e., their atmospheric lifetime, can often be governed by their distribution between the gas and particle phases. For chemicals that are relatively persistent in the atmosphere, removal of the particle-bound fraction by dry deposition or scavenging by rain, snow and fog may be the most important depositional process. However, previous results developed by the USDA-ARS indicated that polar chemicals do not follow established prediction models for partitioning between the gas and particle phases. Over the next five years, collaborations among W-45 members at the USDA-ARS in Beltsville, MD, the University of Nevada, and Washington State University will be critical for better understanding complex atmospheric interactions of volatile organic pollutants. Their collaborative expertise, together with novel atmospheric reaction vessels and key instrument resources, will strengthen atmospheric research in evaluating and modeling distributional phenomena and gas-phase chemical reactivity, which is required for assessments of human and environmental exposure.

Environmental exposures from the improper disposal of unwanted pesticides and rinse water from pesticide containers and application equipment can trigger regulatory actions that have immediate and irreversible consequences for agriculture. W-45 scientists and extension specialists are developing efficient, fast, low cost, and easily operated technology that can be utilized by growers, commercial applicators, and others for treating highly-concentrated pesticide wastewater onsite. This level of on-site treatment takes on added significance since the occurrence of agrochemicals above detectable concentrations in surface waters may have important regulatory consequences for threatened salmonid species in the western states.

At the watershed level, there is also an immediate need for multistate involvement to understand the consequences of agricultural and urban agrochemical surface water discharges, particularly in the Pacific Northwest where certain salmonid species are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The recent implementation of EPAs Endangered Species Protection Program (ESPP) will place greater pressure on agriculture to control agrochemical discharges at the watershed level. Over the next 5 years, W-45 scientists and extension specialists will investigate aquatic exposures to agrochemicals. This work will lead to the formulation of watershed management plans that can adequately protect salmonid species while avoiding an unnecessary burden on agriculture and other pesticide users. The results of this work will aid EPA in forming prudent biological opinions on salmonid health and assist in better defining aquatic exposure parameters in state plans such as the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds and the anticipated Washington State Endangered Species Protection Plan for Pesticide Use. The ESPP may also place greater pressure on agriculture to understand the influence of sublethal effects of agrochemicals on threatened and endangered migratory avian species. W-45 scientists are evaluating the effect of acute low-dose exposure to various cholinesterase inhibitor agrochemicals on homing pigeon migratory behavior and fertility. This project will provide insights into the effects of acute low-dose exposure on pigeon fertility and fetal development that can have implications at the molecular level for threatened and endangered migratory avian species.

Since its early beginnings, W-45 has effectively responded to western region grower and stakeholder concerns for understanding the effects of post-application pesticide transport and fate, and the toxicological implications of agrochemical uses. Today, the work of W-45 scientists extends well beyond the western region boundary. This growing collaboration among chemists, biologists, toxicologists, and ecologists  with expertise in the basic and applied sciences  remains essential for responding to emerging chemical fate and effect issues in accordance with the need for realistic human and environmental exposure information under the provisions of the Endangered Species Act and the Food Quality Protection Act. The strong collaborations among land-grant university scientists and extension specialists together with USDA agricultural research scientists provide a unique amalgamation of research and extension capabilities. This project will continue in its goal to advance science-based strategies to prevent or mitigate unacceptable adverse impacts on humans and the environment while affording joint research, extension, and training opportunities through multistate collaboration and shared use of key research and educational resources.

Related, Current and Previous Work

Research is needed to elucidate the processes of agrochemical fate and function to maximize efficacy, to determine more realistic exposure potentials to biota (including humans) from foliar, soil, water, and airborne agrochemical residues, and to develop exposure minimization strategies. This research will require (a) more appropriate biomarkers and analytical methods with better sensitivity, accuracy and precision; (b) investigations to mechanistically understand the environmental influences of time, temperature, soil moisture, soil organic carbon content,and structure/function of the microbial community on agrochemical loss and bioavailability; and (c) investigation of sublethal biological` effects of low-level chronic exposure.

Analytical Techniques. Immunoassays are valuable alternatives to conventional methods for monitoring agrochemical residues because of their low detection capability, high specificity, rapid analysis, high throughput, and cost effectiveness. For example, immunoassay analysis can cost $20-40 per sample compared to $150-500 per analysis for instrumental methods such as gas chromatography (Aga and Thurman, 1997). In the past five years, W-45 members have developed a number of new immunosensors and immunoassays for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Li et al., 1999; Liu et al., 1999, 2000; Pellequer et al., 2000), polychlorinated biphenyls (Chiu et al., 2000, 2001), and the nicotinoid insecticides imidacloprid (Li and Li, 2000; Kim et al., 2003a, 2004) and thiamethoxam (Kim et al., 2003b). These assays were used in studies of the fate and transport of these chemicals in the environment (Thomas and Li, 2000; Li et al., 2000, 2001). W-45 members have also developed new methods of supercritical fluid (Guo et al., 1999; Alcantara-Licudine et al., 2004) and pressurized fluid (Zhu et al., 2000; David et al., 2000; Campbell and Li, 2001; Campbell et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2003; Denery et al., 2004) extractions.

Pest Management. W-45 researchers in Florida and California have studied the subsurface distribution and volatile emissions of the four registered fumigants, methyl bromide, 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D), chloropicrin, and metam sodium (or MITC) in field plots and microplots to examine the effects of plastic films, application method, and other emissions reductions strategies on pest-control efficacy and crop yield. Fumigant emissions to the atmosphere can be significantly reduced by physical and chemical methods. Physical methods include covering the soil surface with plastic film (Thomas et al., 2004abcd; Ou et al., 2004ab; Wang et al., 1998; 2001a), deep application (Gan et al., 1997; Yates et al., 1997), drip fumigation (Gan et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2001a), and increasing soil water content and bulk density (Lembright, 1990; Wang et al., 1997). Chemical methods include organic matter amendment (Gan et al., 1998; Dungan et al., 2001) and thiosulfate application (Wang et al., 2000 and 2001b; Gan et al., 2000). Due to cost, good pest control efficiency, and application feasibility, the majority of growers currently use plastic tarps. Unfortunately, this management practice generates a large amount of non-degradable plastic waste. New and more biodegradable cover strategies are required to reduce fumigant volatilization while maintaining or increasing pest control.

Research to enable better prediction and management of rangeland weed populations is required to minimize negative impacts on surrounding biota. Research by W-45 scientists in New Mexico has focused on understanding the mechanisms of herbicide resistance, characterizing the genetic variation in crop and weed species, and determining their role in stress response. Oxidative stress is a major factor limiting plant productivity and results from environmental stresses, including pesticides, which can induce the production of active oxygen species capable of severe cell and tissue damage. Differential tolerance of cotton to a photosynthetic inhibitor could not be explained by differences in uptake, translocation, metabolism or site of action (Waldrop et al., 1996), but appeared to be related to the ability of the tolerant variety to protect against free radicals induced by the herbicide (Hernandez and Sterling, 2000). Mechanisms against oxidative stress include antioxidants and protective enzymes that can be induced during inhibition of photosynthesis or when plants are under stress. By understanding how plants avoid oxidative stress, crops will be better protected from stress and weeds better managed. Studies (Sterling and Lownds, 1992; Sterling et al., 1996; Gibbs and Sterling, 2004) suggest that environmental variation plays a much larger role than genetic variation in differential chemical control. Long-term success in weed control requires integrating multiple management strategies with attention to specificity of biological control agents to avoid selection for resistant genotypes (Sterling et al., 2004).

The codling moth (Cydia pomonella L., CM) is a major insect pest of pome fruit (Metcalf et al., 1962). Traditionally, organophosphorus (OP) insecticides have been sprayed 2-4 times per growing season to suppress CM populations. In response to the potential phase-out and problems associated with OP use, pome fruit growers in the Pacific Northwest and California have adopted the use of the sex pheromone, codlemone [(E,E)-8,10-dodecadien-1-ol]. Codlemone is one of a complex mixture of semivolatile sex attractants produced by the female CM. When a sufficient amount of codlemone is released into the orchard air, CM males fail to locate females, thus preventing or delaying mating (Thompson et al., 2001; Brunner and Doerr, 2001). Codlemone significantly reduced the pests population below levels that cause economic harm to apple and pear growers (Brunner et al., 2003). However, the suppression efficiency varies in the Pacific Northwest region, possibly due to poor pheromone release. Field dispenser evaluations by W-45 researchers in Washington suggest that some commercial dispensers failed to control release of pheromone (too little or too much) (Tomaszewska and Hebert, 2002, 2003, 2004; Hebert et al., 2003). To address the effectiveness problems of CM mating disruption technology, innovative approaches will be needed to evaluate pheromone release in the orchard canopy and validate pheromone dispenser performance.

Agrochemical Distribution and Fate as Affected by Transport and Partitioning. The wide use of pesticides in agricultural and urban areas has resulted in their frequent detection in surface water (Thurman et al., 1992; Goolsby and Battaglin, 1993; Meyer and Thurman, 1996; Larson et al, 1997; Clarc and Goolsby, 1999), groundwater (Hallberg, 1989; Barbash and Resek, 1996; Meyer and Thurman, 1996), aquatic biota and sediment (Nowell et al., 1999), and the atmosphere (Majewski and Capel, 1995). In the U.S., at least 143 pesticides and 21 transformation products, representing every major chemical class, have been detected in environmental samples (Konda and Pasztor, 2001), which invokes concern for both environmental and human health issues. Off-site water movement from agricultural land is a partial source of multiple water contaminants. Contaminants dissolved in water can be transported to groundwater or surface water through leaching and overland flow. Particle-bound contaminants can be introduced to air or surface water through sediment transport. Understanding of the major environmental factors influencing agrochemical transport, persistence, and bioavailability in a variety of environments including agricultural fields, turf, and atmospheric and aquatic systems will allow better management of agrochemicals.

Local and global offsite movement of agrochemicals can be a potential source of air, water, and soil pollution. While European and Canadian researchers have been very active in studying the atmospheric deposition of semi-volatile organic compounds (SOCs, vapor pressures <1 Pa) to high elevation ecosystems, far less work has been done in the U.S. There is growing evidence that historical and current use pesticides may undergo atmospheric long-range transport, including trans-Pacific atmospheric transport, and deposition to remote high latitude and high elevation ecosystems in the U.S. These pesticides may originate in North America or may be present in Eurasian air masses. Research on atmospheric pesticide deposition in the Sierra Nevada Mountains indicated that regional sources may contribute to contamination of high elevation ecosystems (LeNoir et al., 1999; McConnell et al., 1998). Organochlorine and other pesticides have been detected in lake sediment and snow in several national parks. The USEPA and others have begun to consider the potential effects of pesticide deposition on amphibian populations in these sensitive ecosystems.

Monitoring of urban watersheds showed a widespread presence of pesticides typically used in lawns, gardens, and golf courses (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). Pesticides were detected in surface waters on or near golf courses at levels that exceeded maximum allowable concentrations based on protection of aquatic species (Cohen et al., 1999). Field experiments showed substantial pesticide runoff losses (up to 25% of applied) when large irrigation or precipitation events followed recent chemical applications (Smith and Bridges, 1996; Cole et al., 1999; Evans et al., 1998; Hong and Smith, 1997; Ma et al., 1999; Watschke et al., 2000; Armbrust, 2001; Armbrust and Peeler, 2002; Armbrust and Schwede-Thomas, 2003). The levels of OP insecticides in the San Jouquin River in California were directly linked with the toxicity to the aquatic arthropod Daphnia magna (Kuivilla and Foe, 1995). Oxadiazon was routinely detected in sediment, fish, and shellfish in freshwater and estuarine streams in southern California where its primary use was associated with turf in parks, residential lawns, golf courses and roadside weed management (Crane and Younghans-Haug, 1992). Plant covers significantly modified soil microbial and chemical activity, which in turn affected the persistence of pesticides and hence the potential for off-site transport (Gan et al., 2003).

Nurseries and floriculture is the second most important agricultural commodity in California. Nurseries are heavy users of pesticides and nutrients. Recent research by W-45 members at the Univ. of California-Riverside indicated that spills of potting mix from routine activities and irrigation contributed greatly to pesticides in nursery runoff (Kabashima et al., 2003). In the runoff, pesticides such as pyrethroids are very persistent and mainly associated with the suspended solids (Liu et al., 2004a; Lee et al., 2003; Gan et al., 2004), suggesting that sedimentation may effectively reduce pesticide loads in the runoff water. Recent results also show that the persistence of commonly-used OP and carbamate insecticides in surface water is affected by the redox conditions and salinity in water, and adsorption in sediment increases as the contact time increases (Bonderanko and Gan, 2004a,b). These findings support the need for further research on the potential ecological effects of pesticides in aquatic systems.

In addition to pesticides, nutrients are often applied to turf and agricultural land to increase crop yields, but excess nutrients (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus) can have severe negative impacts on aquatic systems, causing increased growth of undesirable algae and aquatic weeds (USDA/NRCS, 1997), leading to oxygen shortages, fish kills, and poor water quality for recreation, industry, or drinking. In addition, consumption of algal blooms or of the water-soluble hepatotoxins and neurotoxins that are released when the algae die may pose a serious health hazard to humans and can kill livestock (USDA/NRCS, 1997). Wetland soils can function as sources or sinks for phosphorus (Fisher and Reddy, 2001). Additional research is required to examine the fate and loading of phosphorus from terrestrial and wetland environments to provide information to reduce phosphorus input to aquatic systems.

Agrochemical Toxicity. Carbamate and OP insecticides are designed to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which hydrolyses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in nerve and muscle tissues. Inhibition of AChE causes an increase in synaptic acetylcholine to abnormally high levels, resulting in repetitive stimulation of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors in target tissues. Sufficiently high exposure levels produce clinical signs of acute cholinergic poisoning. Long-lasting neurological damage from acute high level exposure to some OPs is well documented (Karczmar, 1984). California and other states require or recommend blood cholinesterase monitoring for pesticide mixer-loaders, applicators, and farm workers, where inhibition of blood AChE activity is used as a biomarker of exposure to OPs. Although a number of field studies of blood cholinesterase levels exist, the test accuracy has not been scrutinized until recently. Major inadequacies in two commercial kits used by clinical testing laboratories were identified by W-45 researchers at the Univ. of California-Davis (Wilson et al, 1997). The identification of these reported inadequacies have prompted a change in state regulations requiring optimum assay conditions. These researchers will continue to work with state agencies to improve pesticide exposure monitoring.

Most toxicity studies using whole organisms generally focus on acute (lethal) toxicities. The impact of non-lethal, low-dose agrochemical exposure on non-target organisms has not been studied extensively. Acute sub-lethal exposures can impact an organism's ability to survive in the wild by causing a loss of energy, disorientation or loss of ability to navigate, and genetic mutations. W-45 scientists in Nevada are developing a model, homing pigeons (Columbia livia), to test whether low-dose exposure to agrochemicals may have adverse effects on migratory birds (Ross and Pritsos, 1999). Homing pigeons, trained to "home" from over 200 miles out, are dosed by gavage with either water alone or water containing the agrochemical of interest. Studies to date investigating cyanide and arsenic compounds (Brasel et al., 2003, 2004) indicated a dose-dependent increase in the time required to return to the "homing" roost, suggesting that low-dose exposure to these compounds results in a decreased ability for migration. This model will be used to investigate migratory effects of other types of agrochemicals, such as OPs and carbamates.

A number of agrochemicals used both currently and in the past are known to induce oxidative stress as part of their mechanism of action, including pesticides containing cadmium (Vincent et al., 1989, Manca et al., 1991), cyanide (Younes and Strubelt, 1988, Pritsos, 1997), mercury (Stacey and Kappus, 1982, Hoffman and Heinz, 1998), and arsenic (Maupoil and Rochette, 1988, Kehrer et al., 1990). While the acute lethal toxicity of many of these compounds has been characterized, the biological effects of either acute or sub-chronic ingestion of non-lethal dosages are largely unknown. Studies by W-45 members in Nevada have investigated the acute effects of pesticides that induce mitochondrial damage and oxidative stress (potassium cyanide and sodium arsenate) on target (rat) and non-target (mallard duck) organisms (Pritsos, 1996; Pritsos and Ma, 1997, Miller and Pritsos, 2001). Understanding the impact of various agrochemicals on non-target organisms at a mechanistic level provides rationale for or against the development of new agrochemicals based upon these same mechanisms of action.

Environmental Transformation Processes and Remediation Technologies. Effective and economical technologies are needed to clean up soil and water contaminated by agrochemicals. Remediation technologies include Fenton- or Photo-Fenton reaction, reduction with elementary metal, and photolysis. Researchers at Cornell (New York) have studied the effectiveness of the classic Fenton reaction and of an electrochemical Fenton treatment (AFT) to degrade OP (Dowling and Lemley, 1995; Roe and Lemley, 1997), triazine, chloroacetamide, and other pesticides (Pratap and Lemley, 1994; Pratap and Lemley, 1998). The degradation kinetics was modeled using quantitative rate parameters (Wang and Lemley, 2001) and the model was used to optimize the AFT system (Wang and Lemley, 2002a) and to compare the oxidation kinetics of pure and formulated pesticides. Substituion of the salt-bridge in the AFT system with an ion exchange membrane improved the degradation of individual pesticides and pesticide mixtures (Wang and Lemley, 2002b; 2003). The AFT is a powerful tool in understanding hydroxyl radical reactions in the environment and in remediation processes.

The mechanisms by which fungal enzymes might degrade chemicals have been extensively investigated (Barr and Aust, 1994; Cameron et al., 2000a; Reading et al., 2003). In collaboration with scientists at Lung University in Sweden, W-45 scientists in Utah are determining how these enzymes transfer electrons from the enzyme surface to the active site heme (Ferapontova et al., 2002; Christensen et al., 2004). Other fungal enzymes that also have the capability to generate oxidative radicals have been investigated (Cameron and Aust, 1999, 2000) and their ability to degrade chemicals tested (Cameron et al., 2000b; Cameron and Aust, 2001). Past research activities of the W-45 project have concerned designing peroxidases with broader substrate specificity (Timofeevski et al., 2000), determining conditions that stabilize the enzymes (Sutherland et al., 1997) and engineering an enzyme that is inheritently more stable to extremes of pH and temperature (Reading and Aust, 2000 and 2001).

Sunlight photolysis of chemicals on soils, particularly pesticides, has been examined in previous W-45 projects (Hebert and Miller, 1990; Miller and Donaldson, 1993). These studies demonstrated that transformations on soils are common and are a significant loss mechanism for a variety of agrochemicals. In the last three years, concerns have arisen over the observation of perchlorate in groundwater and soils distant from any industrial source (Christen, 2003). The low amount of perchlorate in fertilizers (Susarla et al., 1999) is likely only a partial source. Members of the W-45 project in Nevada are presently investigating whether perchlorate can be formed through photooxidation of chloride on soil surfaces. Preliminary evidence suggests that both semiconductor surfaces (e.g., titanium dioxide) (Serpone et al., 1994) and nitrate (Wallyoord et al., 2003) may be involved in photooxidation of chloride, and further investigation will examine this hypothesis.

Results of CRIS Search. A CRIS search of Hatch projects was conducted with the key word pesticide and indicated that multi-state project W-82 was related to this project. This committee and the W-82 committee (Reducing the potential for environmental contamination by pesticides and other organic chemicals) have addressed the issue of toxics in the environment from very different but complementary perspectives. The two committees have a common interest in the environmental consequences of agricultural practices. However, these projects address different aspects of the environment. W-82 explores the transport of substances in the soil and places great emphasis on modeling these processes with the aim of developing management tools for the use of agricultural chemicals that will minimize environmental contamination. This project, on the other hand, focuses on the chemical and biochemical transformations of pesticides and environmental contaminants, the toxicological impacts of these chemicals on humans and other life forms, and development of remediation technologies. To enhance the beneficial exchange of information between the two groups, joint members will report relevant information from one committee to the other at annual meetings. This project is also related to W1170: Chemistry, Bioavailability, and Toxicity of Constituents in Residuals and Residual-Treated Soils; and W1188: Characterizing Mass and Energy Transport at Different Scales. W1170 focuses on bioavailability of contaminants in municipal waste. W-1188 concentrates on describing and predicting transport of mass and energy in porous media.

Objectives

1. Identify, develop, and/or validate trace residue analytical methods, immunological procedures, and biomarkers.
   
2. Characterize abiotic and biotic reaction mechanisms, transformation rates, and fate in agricultural and natural ecosystems.
   
3. Determine adverse impacts from agrochemical exposure to cells, organisms, and ecosystems.
   
4. Develop technologies that mitigate adverse human and environmental impacts.
   

Methods

Objective 1: Identify, develop, and/or validate trace residue analytical methods, immunological procedures, and biomarkers. To characterize and quantify agrochemical exposure and effects to cells, organisms, and ecosystems, appropriate biomakers need to be elucidated and characterized. New measurement technologies need to be examined and optimized with respect to environmental and biological matrices. Research will be conducted at the Univ. of California at Davis, Univ. of Hawaii, and Mississippi and Oregon State Universities. Researchers at the Univ. of Hawaii will develop new immunoassays for neonicotinoid insecticides (e.g., thiacloprid and dinotefuran), adrenergic agonists (e.g., zilpaterol) and polybrominated flame retardants. These chemicals are small molecules and cannot elicit an immune response by themselves; they must be attached to a large-molecular-weight carrier (protein). Hapten design principles, which have been successfully used for production of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, will be followed. After antibodies are derived, immunoassays will be developed according to established procedures. Researchers at Oregon State Univ. will develop analytical methods to measure historical and current use pesticides in high-volume air samples. These air samples will be collected from remote sites in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and on the island of Okinawa in order to determine which pesticides are emitted from Asia and which pesticides are arriving on the west coast of the U.S. These researchers will also develop analytical methods to measure historical and current use pesticides in large volume (50 L) snow and lake water samples, lake sediment, fish, and vegetation collected from high elevation sites located in eight U.S. National Parks. Researchers at the Univ. of California, Davis will continue research to improve and validate cholinesterase (ChE) levels as indicators of exposure to pesticides and nerve agents. They will investigate the use of fluorometric esters as blood ChE reagents, and investigate the use of fingerstick measurements of ChE as a rapid means of estimating exposure. Scientists at UC Davis will validate the normal human ranges of blood ChE they have described (in collaboration with various states agencies in California and Washington). This information, together with a preliminary conversion factor between the common methods to measure ChE, will enable judgments to be made about exposure without baseline data. Blood ChEs of approximately 15,000 military personnel are being monitored annually in collaboration with the Department of Defense. Researchers at Mississippi State Univ. will develop multi-residue methods to extract and analyze pesticides and their degradation products simultaneously. Emphasis will be given to the development of methods for sediment and water analysis that require minimal sample preparation and no pre-concentration. Simple, rapid, and high throughput methods will be developed for identification and quanititation using HPLC, LC-MS, and/or GC-MS. LC-MS methods will be developed for some new lawn care chemicals (e.g., imidacloprid). A rapid multi-residue method will be developed for the analysis of bed sediment for the herbicides simazine, atrazine, pendamethalin, oxadiazon; the insecticides malathion, diazinon, carbaryl, chlopyrifos and its degradation product trichloropyridinol; and the fungicide chlorthalonil and its principal degradation product hydroxy-chlorthalonil. Objective 2: Characterize abiotic and biotic reaction mechanisms, transformation rates, and fate in agricultural and natural ecosystems. This research will encompass investigations of agrochemical transformation (mechanisms and rates) and agrochemical fate in the environment. The research will be applied to agrochemical efficacy, the potential for agrochemicals to contaminate air, groundwater and surface water, and chemical and biological remediation strategies. Research will be conducted at Cornell Univ.; the Universities of California, Florida, Hawaii, and Nevada; Utah, Mississippi, New Mexico, and Oregon State Universities; and USDA-ARS locations at Riverside, CA, St. Paul and Morris, MN, and Beltsville, MD. Laboratory and greenhouse studies will be conducted by New Mexico State Univ. researchers to investigate factors influencing selectivity and resistance of herbicides at the whole plant or cellular level in crops, agronomic weeds, and exotic, invasive weeds. Experiments will be designed to measure the absorption, translocation, metabolism, and photodegradation of herbicides. Radiolabelled herbicides will be used to follow their movement and degradation at the whole plant and cellular level. Herbicide degradation products will be isolated and elucidated using chromatography techniques. Herbicide translocation as it relates to photosynthate redistribution will be characterized. The transformation of agrochemicals by oxidation/reduction mechanisms will be investigated by researchers at Utah State Univ. and Cornell Univ. The Cornell group will use a flow-through anodic Fenton system to study advanced oxidation of lab-prepared wastewater containing individual pesticides and complex mixtures, pesticide formulation solutions, and pesticide wastewater from application sites. Degradation kinetics of pesticides in different solutions/wastewater will be studied and experimental data will be fitted to the developed kinetic model to derive kinetic parameters. Degradation mechanisms will be elucidated. Researchers at Utah State Univ. will investigate the mechanisms by which enzymes secreted by white-rot fungi generate free radicals that oxidize/reduce and thereby mineralize agrochemicals. The biosynthesis of oxalate will be investigated and methods to optimize its production for the biodegradation of agrochemicals for which reduction is required (i.e., dehalogenation) will be evaluated. The biotransformation of organic chemicals by consortia of microorganisms will be investigated at the Univ. of Hawaii, where research will focus on identification, isolation, and characterization of catabolic enzymes and genes responsible for key steps in multiple microbial transformation pathways of aromatic compounds. Investigations of agrochemical fate in natural and agricultural ecosystems will be conducted at the Universities of California and Florida, Oregon and Mississippi State Universities, and USDA-ARS locations in Riverside, CA, St. Paul, MN, Morris, MN, and Beltsville, MD. The degradation and mobility of pesticides will be assessed across the landscape and throughout the soil profile by researchers at Mississippi State Univ., Univ. of California (Riverside and Davis) and USDA-ARS locations in Beltsville, MD, St. Paul, MN, and Morris, MN. The effect of intrinsic landscape and soil properties on the degradation, leaching, and runoff of pesticides will be assessed. Factors to be investigated will include field position, slope, soil texture, organic matter content, pH, and climatic variables. Experiments will range from laboratory to field scale and will include a variety of environmental conditions, including shallow water, agricultural soil, and turf. Researchers at Oregon State Univ. will measure historical and current use pesticides in high elevation ecosystems to study the fate of these compounds in sensitive, high elevation ecosystems. The accumulation of pesticides in annual snowpack will be studied along with the transfer of these pesticides to perched lakes during snowmelt. The bioaccumulation of these pesticides in fish in these perched lakes will also be studied. Research on soil fumigants, a special class of volatile agrochemicals, will be conducted at the Univ. of Florida and USDA-ARS in Riverside, CA. Researchers at the Univ. of Florida will investigate the enhanced degradation of soil fumigants with repeated applications. Attempts will be made to isolate bacteria capable of degrading fumigants in soil, and to characterize their degradative capacity. Researchers in both groups will also continue to investigate the effect of various fumigant application methods and soil covers on subsurface retention, volatilization, pesticidal efficacy, and crop yield. In particular, a strategy to reduce fumigant emissions using water soluble, biodegradable and non-toxic materials as reactive surface barriers will be developed at USDA-ARS, Riverside, CA. The fate and transport of inorganic agrochemicals will be investigated by contributors at the Universities of Nevada and California, Mississippi State Univ., USDA-ARS, St. Paul. The generation of perchlorate, an anthropogenic and naturally-occurring compound that interferes with iodide uptake, will be assessed by researchers at the Univ. of Nevada. The photooxidation of chloride to perchlorate on low-organic soil surfaces will be investigated. Factors affecting perchlorate generation in desert soils from the southwestern U.S. will be examined, including organic carbon content, particle size distribution, mineral base, and other general soil properties. Scientists at USDA-ARS, St. Paul, MN and Mississippi State Univ. will examine the fate and transport of phosphorus from a drained shallow-lake wetland to provide information to reduce P loading and subsequent nuisance algal blooms in down-stream recreational lakes. Relationships between temporal dynamics of P loading at the wetland inlet and outlet and dynamics of important environmental variables will be examined by monitoring flow and P in the water at the inlet and outlet of a ditch draining the wetland. Researchers at the Univ. of California in Riverside and Davis will collaborate to conduct studies on the fate of nutrients in the soil/air/water system to identify environmental factors influencing agrochemical fate in agricultural soils, sensitive ecosystems, and suburban watersheds. Use patterns and climatic variables contributing to off-site transport of nutrients will be identified. The data gained from this research can be used to develop best management practices (BMPs) to reduce the movement of these chemicals to non-target ecosystems. Objective 3: Determine adverse impacts from agrochemical exposure to cells, organisms, and ecosystems. This research will investigate the environmental impact of agrochemical exposure to target and non-target organisms from the cellular level to the population level. Research will be conducted at the Universities of Nevada and California (Davis and Riverside); Oregon and New Mexico State Universities; and Purdue Univ. Univ. of Nevada researchers, in collaboration with UC Davis scientists, will conduct studies with a homing pigeon model for migratory birds to assess the impact of agrochemical exposure on time-of-flight. Toxicological effects of arsenic and other widely-used agrochemicals such as organophosphates and carbamates will be investigated. Developmental studies will examine potential teratogenic effects of arsenic and other agrochemicals tested in these studies, including expression of specific genes responsible for fetal development: real-time-PCR will be performed on embryo RNA samples to determine homeobox and vitellogenin gene expression. New Mexico State Univ. researchers will continue laboratory and greenhouse studies to elucidate protective mechanisms against photo oxidative stress in plants induced by pesticides. Studies will characterize plant response at whole plant (ecophysiology) and cellular (lipid peroxidation, protective enzymes, antioxidants) levels using gas exchange, spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods. Researchers at UC-Davis will collaborate with aquatic toxicologists to study runoff from dormant sprayings. Additional studies in collaboration with the USGS will examine pollution effects on protected wildlife by quantifying liver cytochrome-p450 levels of Eider and Harlequin ducks in the Aleutians. In addition, work will continue with reproductive biologists at UC Davis to validate an assay (an antibody to fecal testosterone in birds) as a rapid means to determine fecundity of birds suspected of being exposed to pollutants. Oregon State and Purdue Univ. researchers will study the effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) and other agrochemicals on non-target organisms. Research conducted by Oregon State Univ. researchers will clarify the role of IGF-1 in vertebral bone development, and assess the risks associated with exposure to exogenous compounds that disrupt this homeostatic signaling pathway. They will also use a zebrafish model to identify potential human and environmental health effects resulting from EDC exposure. Purdue Univ. researchers will conduct studies on the effects of EDC and agrochemicals (including organochlorine pesticides) on non-target fish and wildlife through field and laboratory studies. Field monitoring studies will be conducted by measuring concentrations of agrochemicals in water, sediments, and fish and wildlife tissues. A health assessment of free-ranging animals will be conducted including: reproductive status, full necropsies, histopathology, and other biomarkers. Field study results will be compared to those obtained in the laboratory under controlled conditions. Sensitive genetic biomarkers of exposure and effects to different classes of compounds will be developed using microarrays by researchers at Purdue Univ. Objective 4: Develop technologies that mitigate adverse human and environmental impacts. Drawing from W45s multidisciplinary collaborations and expertise, economically viable technologies and management strategies will be developed to prevent and/or mitigate potential agrochemical impacts on human and environmental health. Researchers and extension specialists at Mississippi, Oregon, Utah, and Washington State Universities, Cornell Univ., and ARS laboratories in Beltsville, MA, Riverside, CA, St. Paul, MN, and Morris, MN will work towards this objective while assuring the technological transferability to stakeholders (including state safety and health agencies, chemical manufacturers, growers, extension specialists, and others). Washington State scientists will develop novel sensor-based air sampling techniques for measuring trace-level (pg to ng m-3) but bioactive pheromone concentrations emitted from hand-applied dispensers in treefruit canopies. Successful development and adoption of this sensor technology will greatly assist in rapidly identifying and mitigating dispenser failures in orchards. Without such a technology, greater area-wide reliance on conventional chemical pest control could result in greater occupational and non-occupational exposure hazards. Scientists at Cornell Univ. will develop and optimize a flow-through anodic Fenton treatment technology to degrade pesticides in agricultural wastewaters. This treatment process relies on the wastewater being pumped through an anodic half-cell to react with the hydroxyl radicals generated from the Fenton reaction. Two separate treatment techniques, non-cycle flow-through and cycle flow-through, will be developed and tested to treat candidate pesticides. Once refined, this technology has the immediate potential to reduce human and environmental exposures by removing unwanted pesticides from rinse water from pesticide containers and application equipment. Turf management typically involves very intensive agrochemical use patterns. Researchers at Mississippi State Univ. will collaborate with USDA-ARS scientists in St. Paul, MN to identify management practices that minimize agrochemical losses from turf by runoff following rainfall, irrigation, and snow melt. Measurements of pesticide runoff will be incorporated with key environmental parameters to calibrate computer exposure model scenarios. The investigators will test the predictive ability of the Pesticide Root Zone Model (PRZM 3) linked with EXAMS 3.12 to simulate runoff and estimate chemical loading to aquatic systems. The validation of this model has immediate regional and national utility for mitigating surface runoff at high loading source locations. Soil fumigation will likely remain a necessary pest management tool for controlling nematodes and other soil-borne pests in annual and perrenial crops throughout the U.S. Scientists at the USDA-ARS in Riverside, CA are developing a novel technology to reduce fumigant emissions to the atmosphere (reducing the risk of fumigant exposure via inhalation) while maintaining pest control efficacy by covering the soil surface during fumigation with water soluble, biodegradable and non-toxic materials. The adoption of this technology or use of plastic film covers (collaborative efforts between the Univ. of Florida and USDA-ARS, Riverside, CA) can have enormous benefits for row crop production throughout the U.S. by increasing fumigant efficacy, reducing agrochemical use, and substantially reducing inhalation hazards to workers and residents of nearby communities. The environmental fate and transport of many new reduced-risk agrochemicals and their transformation products have not been extensively examined. Scientists at USDA-ARS in Morris, MN will work towards characterizing the environmental fate and movement of isoxaflutole and other promising reduced-risk herbicide candidates and their transformation products through field dissipation and runoff studies using soil types and environmental conditions typical of the northern Midwest. This information will aid in the development of best management practices to reduce the potential for surface and ground water contamination. The environmental fate of airborne organic pollutants, i.e., their atmospheric lifetime, can often be governed by their distribution between the gas and particle phases. For chemicals that are relatively persistent in the atmosphere, removal of the particle-bound fraction by dry deposition or scavenging by rain, snow and fog may be the most important depositional process. However, previous results developed by the USDA-ARS indicated that polar chemicals do not follow established prediction models for partitioning between the gas-particle phases. The collaborative expertise among researchers at the USDA-ARS in Beltsville, MD, the Univ. of Nevada, and Washington State Univ., together with sharing of novel atmospheric reaction vessels and other key instrumentational resources, will be crucial for investigating and modeling distributional processes that can have important consequences in human and ecological risk assessment. Scientists and extension specialists at Oregon State Univ. will assist in the development of watershed management plans that can adequately protect salmonid species listed by the Endangered Species Act while avoiding unnecessary burdens on agriculture and other pesticide users. Oregon State Univ. scientists and extension specialists will develop a system for evaluating the relative impact of pesticide use on aquatic and riparian ecosystems associated with different stream types throughout an Oregon watershed. The intent of this effort is to develop and evaluate new methods for assessing stream health and salmon recovery as a result of pesticide use practices at the watershed level. The results of this work will aid the USEPA in making prudent biological opinions on salmonid health and assist in better defining biological exposure parameters in the soon-to-be-adopted Washington States Endangered Species Protection Plan for Pesticide Use.

Measurement of Progress and Results

Outputs

• The results of our research will be disseminated to the scientific community through publications in refereed journals, presentations at national and international meetings, and departmental seminars. Results will be presented to various lay stakeholders as described in Outreach Plan below..
• Rapid and sensitive analytical methods for pesticides and other environmental pollutants including synthetic pyrethroids and other chiral compounds, neonicotinoid insecticides, adrenergic agonists, will be developed. These methods will allow for high-throughput screening of water samples, and will increase our capability for screening water samples contaminated with pesticides. Similar methods will be used in the analysis of urine in residential and occupational exposure assessments. A standard assay for cholinesterase levels as an indication of exposure to cholinesterase inhibitors (including nerve agents, pesticides, etc.) will be recommended, which will be valuable in protecting armed forces, agricultural workers, and others exposed to these chemicals from debilitating effects.
• We will be in direct communication with agrochemical manufacturers to offer suggestions for improving product efficacy and developing label recommendations and restrictions to protect human and environmental health. Results will be also available to federal and state regulatory agencies, which may use this information in future decisions regarding agrochemical registration, risks/benefits, tolerances, and restrictions. Results on the trans-Pacific and regional atmospheric transport of pesticides and their deposition to sensitive high elevation ecosystems will be used to influence global regulatory strategies on the use of pesticides in developing countries and to aid the U.S. National Park Service in managing Park exposure to pesticides due to long-range atmospheric transport.
• Products developed in this project include: a pilot flow-through AFT system for degradation of agrochemicals; bioremediation technologie; improvements in the model Wet-Pest for evaluating watershed level impacts to aquatic resources of various pesticide use scenarios; invasive weed management strategies; management practices for pesticide runoff and leaching; new fumigant application technologies for improved dispersion in the root zone; and an effective biodegradable cover for field application to reduce fumigant volatilization while maintaining high pest control efficacy.

Outcomes or Projected Impacts

• Current technologies and the cost and availability of labor dictate the use of pesticides for managing weeds, insects, nematodes, and diseases in most cropping systems. An estimated $7.6 billion dollars were spent on chemicals for agricultural pest control in the U.S. in 2002, with over 200 million acres treated. To increase crop and rangeland production efficiency, agriculturalists must reduce the impact of crop losses due to pests using cultural, chemical, and biological pest control strategies. New exotic weeds, new genotypes exhibiting environmental tolerance or herbicide resistance, or alternate species can invade open habitats very rapidly. Understanding the mechanisms involved will improve our ability to better predict and integrate current and potential pest management strategies, providing environmentally sound and cost effective approaches to pest management. These approaches will lead to reduced application of pesticides.
• The results of these studies will provide insights into the effects of acute low-dose exposure to various agrochemicals on non-target species. State and Federal regulatory agencies may use this information in decisions regarding the registration and use of these and other agrochemicals based on a similar mechanism of toxicity. There is a critical need to develop animal models to indicate the impact of agrochemicals, including endocrine-disrupting compounds, on non-target species. The development of the migratory bird and fish models into research and regulatory tools for assessing the impact of an agrochemical on non-target species will be very valuable in protecting wildlife. These models will also be useful to the agrochemical industry in evaluating the toxicity of existing and proposed products.
• The off-site transport of agrochemicals is both an agronomic and environmental concern reducing efficacy in the area of application and increasing contamination to non-target surrounding ecosystems. Results of this research will provide information on the fate of nutrients and pesticides in the soil/air/water system, and will identify environmental factors influencing agrochemical fate. This research will provide information to manufacturers on the efficacy and environmental fate of their products. The data gained from this research can be used to develop best management practices to reduce the movement of these chemicals to non-target ecosystems. It will also allow development of computer-simulated pesticide exposure scenarios using established regulatory models to estimate the impact of new and existing chemistries on environmental systems under various management practices. In addition, the multi-state data will be valuable to regulatory agencies in establishing scientifically-based criteria for the registration and use of pesticides and nutrients on crops and turf.
• The 2002 USDA Census of Agriculture estimated that there were over 3 million hired farm workers in the U.S. Of this total, a large fraction is employed in CA (0.53 M) and WA (0.26 M), where they are likely exposed to a variety of pesticides. Our research will include environmental and biological monitoring of a variety of work tasks of pesticide handlers and harvesters of treated crops. These data will serve to clarify the extent of risk resulting from exposure and provide exposure data for more objective establishment of field entry intervals and the effectiveness of personal protective equipment. Collaborative work with the a number of state and federal agencies aims to set the stage for a national standard (and appropriate conversions) for the monitoring of blood cholinesterase levels, providing early warnings of dangerous exposures.

Milestones

(0):arate milestones for the W-45 project are given for each of the four major objectives. We believe that this format is more conducive to accurately reflecting the milestones for a project of this breadth. While each of the objectives is clearly linked to the others, the specific milestones for each are not necessarily interdependent.

(0):ective 1 a. Develop methods for trace residue analysis, immunological procedures, and biomarker identification and development (by the end of Year 1). b. These methods will then be refined and validated in-house by the end of Year 3. c. Methods will be evaluated by inter-laboratory comparison studies (Years 4 and 5). d. By Year 5, these methodologies will be available for transfer to stakeholders for use by other research laboratories. Key reagents developed for the procedures will be made available by the end of Year 5.

(0):ective 2 a. Determine the kinetics of various biotic and abiotic reactions in agricultural and natural ecosystems by the end of Year 3. b. Elucidate the various mechanisms of these reactions by the end of Year 4. c. Determine the fate of agrochemicals and their transformation products in selected agricultural and natural ecosystems by the end of Year 5.

(0):ective 3 a. Determine adverse impacts to target and non-target organisms from agrochemical exposure at the cellular and individual levels by the end of Year 2. b. Determine impacts of agrochemical exposure to target and non-target organisms at the community and population levels by the end of Year 4. c. Establish and transfer models for testing the impact of agrochemical exposures on non-target species in ecosystems by the end of Year 5.

(0):ective 4 a. Develop strategies and technologies that mitigate adverse human and environmental impacts from agrochemicals by the end of Year 3. b. Complete field testing of the methodologies developed in Milestone 1 by the end of Year 4. c. Field demonstration of methodologies developed in Milestone 2 will be done by the end of Year 5. d. Transfer technology to appropriate stakeholders, including growers, Federal and State agencies, chemical manufacturers, crop consultants, extension personnel, and modelers. This milestone will be achieved by the end of Year 5.

Projected Participation

View Appendix E: Participation

Outreach Plan

The results obtained by the W-45 scientists will be disseminated to a wide range of stakeholders including scientists, governmental agencies, agricultural agents, producers, manufacturers and the lay public. A variety of methods will be employed to disseminate this information, depending upon the audience. The research results will be distributed to the scientific community through publications in refereed journals and presentations at local (e.g., departmental), regional, national, and international meetings. Results will be presented to lay stakeholders through trade magazine publications; demonstration tours; outreach presentations and materials; learning centers; technical reports to growers, manufacturers and crop consultants; workshops; online education modules; presentations to state commodity groups; state crop commissions, local watershed and conservation districts, funding organizations etc.; presentation at annual field days; and Certified Crop Advisor proficiency testing modules.

Organization/Governance

The Technical Committee is composed of the members who represent the participating experiment stations, state extension services, and Agricultural Research Service laboratories, as well as an Administrative Advisor, and a representative of CSREES. The officers of the Technical Committee will serve for two years each, and be a chairman and a secretary. The chairman of the technical committee coordinates the collaborative research and the annual technical meeting, with consultation from the administrative advisor. The chairman prepares the agenda, presides over the annual meetings and is responsible for preparation of the annual report. The secretary is responsible for recording and distributing the minutes of the technical committee meeting and carrying out duties assigned by the technical committee or administrative advisor. The officers and the immediate past chairman comprise the Executive Committee, which is empowered to act for the Technical Committee between annual meetings.

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Attachments

Land Grant Participating States/Institutions

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Non Land Grant Participating States/Institutions

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