Duration: 12/01/2008 to 09/30/2013

Administrative Advisor(s):

NIFA Reps:

Non-Technical Summary

Statement of Issues and Justification

Introduction:
Swine production is globally distributed. The U.S. is the world's third largest swine producing country behind China and the European Union. In 2006, an estimated 105 million hogs were slaughtered in the U.S. for an estimated gross on-farm value of $13 billion. The average daily inventory was 61 million animals, of which 6.1 million were sows (USDA, 2006). Swine production is driven by the fact that pork continues to be one of the major high quality sources of protein in human diets and, because of its flavor, pork is the meat of choice world wide. The average per capita consumption of pork in the U.S. is 29.0 kg (USDA, 2006).

Need as indicated by the stakeholders:
Swine enterprises constitute a major source of on-farm income in the Southern Region of the U.S., and production continues to increase. Swine production in the Southern Region has represented 24-27% of U.S. pork production over the past 10 years (USDA, 2006). The most rapidly growing component of swine production in the Southern Region is in sow farms producing feeder pigs that are shipped to the Midwest for finishing and market. This trend is attributed to favorable environmental conditions and the availability of labor and interest in contract swine production in the Southern Region and an availability of feedstuffs in the Midwest. The Southern Region has a more favorable climate during the winter months than many of the swine producing states of the Midwest; however, high environmental temperatures during the summer affect reproductive efficiency.

A primary factor affecting profitability of swine production is sow productivity, and optimum nutrition of the sow is essential to maximize sow productivity. An ideal nutrition program should provide adequate nutrients to maximize sow productivity while minimizing excreted nutrients and feed costs. The continuing trends to earlier weaning, confinement housing, and intensive production schedules place biological demands on the sow that make high performance difficult to obtain and maintain. An increase in the number of pigs marketed per sow per year, through improved sow nutrition, would result in increased profitability by allocating the fixed sow costs over more pigs.

The research committee of the National Pork Producers Council identified improvements in sow nutrition as an area needing further research. The current S-1012 committee has met with members of the American Feed Industry Association, the National Pork Board, and representatives from large feed companies to survey their assessment of research needs by the industry. The research objectives that we have chosen result directly from those meetings. All segments of the industry recognize sow productivity and nutrition as extremely important factors affecting profitability in swine production systems. Although progress has been made in sow nutrition in the last 30 years, there is still a dearth of information relative to specific nutrient requirements of sows during gestation and lactation, especially the high milk-producing sows used today. Further research is greatly needed to completely define the levels of various nutrients necessary for optimizing reproduction and lactation, and for minimizing nutrient excretion.

Importance of the work:
It is extremely important to conduct research to provide solutions to potential sow nutrition and production problems and the impact that concentrated production systems have on the environment in the Southern Region of the United States. Social restrictions and governmental regulations place extreme pressures on our production systems. Solutions to these issues must be resolved so that swine production in the South, an extremely important component of agricultural productivity, will remain, and that it will continue to be an economically viable opportunity for our work force.

Technical feasibility of the research:
The original Southern Multi-State Research Group (S-145) and the current group (S-1012, previously S-288) have made significant contributions in obtaining new knowledge and creating a better understanding of the nutritional needs of sows to improve reproductive efficiency. This Technical Committee has used the approach of (1) defining high priority research areas, (2) developing common protocols that are rigidly followed by all participating stations, (3) pooling the data, (4) drawing conclusions, (5) publishing the pooled results in scientific journals and (6) dissemination of research results through extension programming and direct producer contact. Since its inception, the Committee has published 16 refereed publications, 1 conference proceedings, and 18 abstracts. These publications are the direct result of the collaborative research effort of the Southern Multi-State Research Group. Also, in collaboration with the NCCC-42 Committee, the Committee has published one book entitled "Swine Nutrition" and four book chapters. Committee members have been asked to speak at a number of producer and industry conferences to discuss research results. Recently the S-1012 Committee was nominated by the Southern Region Departments Heads for the NASULGC award for Regional research. Over the last 20 years, participants in the Committee have clearly demonstrated that they can successfully collaborate in regional research. In addition, we meet annually with the NCCC-42 Committee, which is an informational exchange group working on swine nutrition. We have opened our objectives to their participation.

Justification for a regional approach:
Sow research is well suited to a regional approach for three major reasons. First, in reproductive studies, large numbers of animals are required to generate meaningful data; individual experiment stations often do not have sufficient sow numbers to effectively conduct sow research. Second, pooled results from several experiments conducted with a common protocol but under different environments provide valuable information from which broad inferences can be drawn and more meaningful recommendations can be made. A further advantage of a regional approach is that the combined experience and expertise of several swine nutritionists can be focused on a few high-priority objectives. Also, a planned annual meeting provides opportunities to discuss new and old research findings.

Progress in sow nutrition and management research is hampered by the large variation among sows in the economically important reproductive traits (Aaron and Hays, 1991). In a summary of 2,346 farrowings in five herds, the coefficients of variation were 27% for total and live pigs farrowed and 32% for pigs weaned (Hays et al., 1969). In contrast, the coefficients of variation for growth rate and feed efficiency were 4 and 6%, respectively, for pens of growing and finishing pigs (Cromwell et al., 1984). The number of replications needed to detect a 10% difference in litter size at birth and at weaning, at an 80% success rate and a 5% probability level, is 114 and 161 sows per treatment, respectively. Thus, it is difficult for individual experiment stations to generate the number of observations needed to reach valid conclusions.

Goals and impacts of the current research:
The goals of this proposed project are to improve the reproductive performance of sows. This research will include studies to evaluate feed additives and mineral sources to determine the effects on reproductive efficiency and to improve the economic return to swine producers. We plan to feed sows to examine the effects of copper on reproductive performance, especially during periods of heat stress. Seasonal infertility is a major issue in the swine industry in the Southern region. We also plan to examine the reproductive responses of sows fed organic trace minerals vs inorganic trace minerals; a direct suggestion from the industry. Differences in mineral availability are thought to affect reproductive performance and will decrease environmental impact of swine operations. We plan to evaluate the inclusion of spray-dried plasma protein into lactating sow diets to determine the effect of this specialty product on sow and litter performance especially during periods of heat stress. There is very little research on the use of this potential appetite enhancer in sow diets.

Related, Current and Previous Work

Literature searches were made in the CSREES index, the CRIS index, the CAB Index, the Index on Current Research in Pigs, and the Index of the Journal of Animal Science to locate past and current research in the three project areas.

Objective 1: Copper in sow diets:
Copper, as copper sulfate, has been added to the diets of swine, particularly nursery swine, as a growth stimulating agent for a number of years. While there are many theories as to possible modes of action, the specific mode(s) of action have not been fully elucidated. Most producers find that the addition of 250 ppm Cu as copper sulfate will increase ADG from 5 to 10.5%, and improves feed efficiency from 3.9 to 8.1% (Braude, 1975). Historically, the response to the addition of copper sulfate to the diet has decreased as the pigs have progressed from nursery to grower to finisher (Wallace, 1967). Limited research has been conducted on the addition of Cu to sow diets. Lillie and Frobish (1978) fed sows 0, 15, 30 or 60 ppm Cu as Cu-sulfate and either 100 or 200 ppm Fe over four parities. These authors started with gilts that had been fed a Cu deficient diet for 8 weeks before starting the study. This study found that the addition of copper linearly increased total and live adjusted birth weights (P < 0.05). Weaning weights were increased compared to controls in litters from sows fed 60 ppm Cu (P < 0.05). Supplemental iron had no effect on birth weight. A Cu x Fe interaction (P < 0.05) was found for lactation weight change with sows fed 100 ppm of Fe having increased weight loss with increasing levels of Cu, while the weight loss of sows fed 200 ppm of Fe not being affected by dietary Cu level. Sow hematology values were maximized at 15 ppm Cu, and were not affected by Fe concentration in the diet. Progeny hemoglobin values were not affected by dietary treatment. However, a Cu x Fe interaction (P < 0.05) was seen for progeny hematocrit. Hematocrit values in the progeny of sows fed the 100 ppm Fe diet, increased with increasing Cu concentrations, while the hematocrit of the progeny of sows fed the 200 ppm Fe diet was not affected by Cu concentration in the diet.

Thacker (1991) fed sows either 250 ppm of Cu as Cu-sulfate or 500 ppm Dichlorvos from d 106 of gestation through a 28 day lactation period. The data from this study indicated that the addition of Cu to the sow diet decreased pre-weaning mortality (P < 0.05). However, Cu addition had no effect (P > 0.1) on milk yield or composition. Copper addition to the diet had no effect on days return to estrus, lactation feed intake or weight loss, conception rate, or cholesterol values. A long term study, where 250 ppm of dietary Cu as Cu-sulfate was fed for up to 6 parities found that sows fed Cu had a decreased culling rate (P < 0.01), heavier body weight at day 108 of gestation (P < 0.05), larger litters (P < 0.10), and that the progeny was 9% heavier at birth (P < 0.001) and 6% heavier at weaning (P < 0.01). Pre-weaning survival was not influenced by treatment, but total litter weights were increased (P < 0.05) at weaning in sows fed 250 ppm of Cu. Days return to estrus were reduced by 1 day (P < 0.1) in sows fed the 250 ppm dietary Cu (Cromwell et al, 1993). These authors reported that farrowing rate in gilts fed 250 ppm Cu was decreased (P < .05). In this study, Cu supplementation was initiated 47 days post-mating. Liver and kidney Cu concentrations were increased in sows fed the 250 ppm dietary Cu (Cromwell et al, 1993). More recently, Yen et al. (2005) fed 14 mg/d Cu as Cu-histidine from d 108 of gestation to either d 7 or 14 post-weaning. These authors found that when sows were group housed in larger breeding pens, the addition of Cu-histadine to the diet increased (P < .05) the number of sows bred by d 7 post-weaning. In this study breeding pen size and season of the year seem to be confounded. Spears and Flowers (1995) also observed a shorter weaning to estrus interval in sows fed a combination of Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn proteinates. In rats, Cu-complexes stimulate the release of LHRH from the hypothalamic neurons (Barnea and Colombani-Vidal, 1984). A higher level of LH before weaning has been associated with a decreased weaning to estrus interval in sows (Shaw and Foxcroft, 1985; Tokach et al. 1992). Yen et al, (2005) suggested that Cu supplementation of the lactation diet may increase LH secretion during lactation, resulting in a decrease in days return to estrus.

Objective 2: The use of spray dried plasma protein (Appetein) in sow diets:
Spray-dried plasma protein (SDPP) is known to have beneficial effects in diets for nursery pigs. These positive effects also have been reported in broilers, turkeys, dairy calves, and dogs (Quigley and Wolfe, 2003; Quigley et al., 2004; Campbell et al., 2006). Crenshaw et al. (2005) conducted two experiments where multiparous PIC sows were fed either 0 or 0.5% SDPP. In experiment. 1, of the sows fed SDPP, parity 1 and 2 sows had increased feed intake, parity > 2 sows had decreased feed intake. Parity 1 sows had a decrease in days to estrus, and parity > 2 sows had increased pig survivability. In experiment 2, the sows fed SDPP had decreased feed intake and there was no effect on survivability. However, sows fed SDPP weaned heavier litters with more pigs weaned > 3.6 kg. Overall, SDPP increased feed intake in parity < 3 sows and decreased the days to estrus in parity 1 sows. Because there was a decrease in feed intake of older parity sows with an increase in litter weaning weight and number of pigs weaned > 3.6 kg, this suggests that the productivity of parity > 2 sows was improved by the addition of SDPP. Crenshaw et al. (2007) conducted 4 experiments to determine the effect of adding 0 or 0.25% SDPP (Exp. 1 and 2) and 0 or 0.5% SDPP (Exp. 3 and 4) to sow lactation diets. In experiment 1, parity 1 and 2 sows were evaluated during the summer months. The sows fed 0.25% SDPP had increased lactation feed intake, decreased weight loss, and decreased days to estrus. Litter weaning weight tended to be increased. In experiment 2, multiparous (1, 2, and > 2) sows were evaluated during the fall/winter months. Of the sows fed 0.25% SDPP, sow weight loss decreased while other variables were not affected by treatment. In experiment 3, sows were evaluated during the summer months. Lactation feed intake was increased for parity 1 and 2 sows, but decreased for parity > 2 sows fed 0.5% SDPP. Additionally, days to estrus was decreased for parity 1 sows, but not affected in parity 2 and > 2 sows fed SDPP. In experiment 4, parity > 2 sows were evaluated in the summer months. Lactation feed intake was decreased, but litter weaning weight and average pig weaning weight were increased in sows fed 0.5% SDPP. Data from experiments 1, 2, and 3 for parity 1 and 2 sows were combined to determine the percentage of sows in estrus by d 4 to 6 or d 10 to 22 post-weaning. Sows fed either 0.25 or 0.5% SDPP had an improvement in the percentage of sows in estrus by d 4 to 6, and the percentage of sows in estrus by d 10 to 22 was decreased by SDPP. Overall, parity 1 and 2 sows fed either 0.25 or 0.5% SDPP had increased feed intake and decreased days to estrus. Frugé et al. (2007) evaluated 0 or 0.5% (SDPP + lactose; Appetein) on sow and litter performance during lactation. Sows were grouped by parity for statistical analysis, and groups consisted of all parities, parities (0 to 2), and parities (3 to 7). When grouped by all parities, sows fed Appetein had increased litter average daily gain with one less day of lactation. Young parity (0 to 2) sows fed Appetein had decreased average daily feed intake during lactation and no effects of treatment on litter performance. Older parity (3 to 7) sows fed Appetein had an increased average pig birth weight, litter and pig ADG, litter weaning weight, pig survivability, and number of pigs weaned > 3.6 kg. Additional sow response variables (sow weight on d 110 gestation, d 1 post-farrowing, and weaning weight, lactation and overall weight change, days to estrus, pigs born alive or dead, total pigs born, litter live weight, and backfat thickness) were not affected by treatment. Data were recorded for subsequent farrowing, but no treatment effects were observed. Overall, Appetein increased the productivity of older parity (3 to 7) sows. Based on these studies, there are variations in feed intake of primiparous and multiparous sows when fed SDPP. Two of the studies reported increased feed intake and decreased days to estrus in parity 1 and 2 sows while the other study reported decreased average daily feed intake and no effects of treatment on days to estrus. These variations could be the result of differences in the way sows were fed. In Crenshaw's work, the sows were fed ad libitum, but in Frugé's work, sows were fed 3 times per day. However, these three studies reported similar findings in older parity (> 2) sows, where sows fed SDPP had increased litter weaning weight and number of pigs weaned > 3.6 kg. Overall, the addition of SDPP to sow lactation diets improves the productivity of older parity (> 2) sows.

Objective 3: Determine the effect of organic minerals on sow productivity and longevity.
A sow's mineral reserves have been shown to decline over several reproductive cycles and depletion is exacerbated when sows support larger litter growth rates (Mahan and Newton, 1995). Possibly exacerbating this reduction in reserves is suspected interactions between a trace mineral and other minerals or nutrients, which may decrease its availability or utilization by the animal. A decline may lead to marginal mineral deficiencies which may affect growth, reproduction, and health, but otherwise have no outward signs. Under modern intensive management practices, animals receive a supplemental supply of dietary trace minerals in addition to those contributed by dietary plant and/or animal sources. However, trace mineral premix sources vary greatly in their bioavailability. Consequently, under certain conditions it may be possible to achieve maximum reproductive performance at lower dietary levels when sources with higher bioavailabilities are fed.

The premise for using organic trace minerals in animal diets and replacing traditional inorganic sources is that their bioavailability is greater because they remain stable in the digestive tract and do not form insoluble chelates with other dietary components, like phytate. It has been proposed that absorption from the intestinal lumen could be accomplished using other mechanisms in addition to those for metal ions (Ashmead, 1993; Du et al., 1996). Although one proposed mechanism is that mineral-ligand chelates are absorbed intact by utilizing the uptake mechanism of the ligand, like an amino acid or peptide transporter (Ashmead, 1993), this theory has yet to be proven.

Organically bound minerals ("organic minerals") have been developed in recent years as dietary alternatives to traditional inorganic sources and are termed metal-chelates, complexes, or proteinates. In 1997, the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) developed definitions for organically bound mineral compounds (Ammerman et al., 1998). These classes of organic trace minerals differ by type and specificity of the nonmetal ligands and the method of binding.

Researchers at Washington State University conducted a series of experiments evaluating the partial replacement of inorganic sources of Cu, Mn, and Zn with proteinate sources. Multiparous sows with a history of poor reproductive performance (< 10 pigs born) were fed a control diet with Zn oxide, Mn sulfate, and Cu sulfate, or a treatment in which 25% of the inorganic minerals were replaced by mineral proteinates during one lactation through 30 d postcoitum of the subsequent reproductive cycle (Mirando et al., 1993). There was no effect of the organic trace minerals on lactation performance; however, more sows conceived when fed the organic trace minerals. Furthermore, there were more live fetuses and fewer dead embryos when the organic source was fed. The number of corpora lutea was similar between treatments, suggesting that the organic minerals improved embryo and or fetal survival. In another experiment, these treatments were fed to gilts beginning at 105 d of age through d 15 of pregnancy (Hostetler and Mirando, 1998). Gilts fed the organic treatment reached puberty 13 d sooner than the inorganic treatment, although pregnancy and ovulation rates were not affected. Finally, gilts fed Cu, Mn, and Zn proteinates had higher concentrations of these minerals in the conceptus products at d 12 postcoitum and higher Cu at d 30 (Hostetler et al., 2000). This response suggests that the organic trace minerals have higher bioavailabilities and seem more able to meet mineral requirements for reproduction during early pregnancy.

Flowers and coworker (2001) fed Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn proteinates to reproducing females over three parities. The control diet contained inorganic trace minerals at higher industry levels. Two other treatments included the trace mineral at 25% of the control diet (below NRC, 1998), with one consisting entirely of inorganic source and the other provided as metal-proteinates. The number of pigs born live and weaned was increased when sows were fed the reduced level of the inorganic trace minerals compared to the control; however the organic treatment was similar to the control. Despite weaning fewer pigs than the reduced inorganic treatment, sows fed the reduced organic treatment had heavier litter weaning weights. Peters and Mahan (2005) evaluated the effect of trace mineral source on sow reproductive performance over 4 parities using 102 sows and 287 farrowings. Minerals evaluated were organic (Bio-Plex, Alltech Inc.) and inorganic sources of trace minerals (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Se, and Zn) fed to developing gilts and sows. Sows fed the organic trace mineral source tended to farrow more total (P=0.06) pigs (12.3 vs. 11.5) with heavier (P < 0.15) litter (19.5 vs. 18.6 kg) but not individual pig weights at birth. Litter daily gains from birth to weaning were greater when sows were fed the organic source (P < 0.05). This research is continuing through an additional 2 parities with similar results Peters, 2006). Payne et al. 2006 supplemented diets containing 100 ppm Zn from ZnSO₄ with either an additional 100 ppm from ZnSO₄ or from ZnAA (Availa Zn, Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN) from d 15 of gestation and continuing through lactation. Although the number of sows involved in the study was limited, litter birth weight was increased (P < 0.10) in sows fed ZnAA compared to sows fed the control or ZnSO₄ diets. The sows fed ZnAA nursed more pigs (P < 0.10) than sows fed the ZnSO₄ diet and weaned more pigs (P < 0.05) than sows fed the control diet.

Selenium yeast has demonstrated more consistent effects in reproducing females than the other "organic" trace minerals. There was no effect of feeding organic Se on total or live pigs born; however, the number of pigs born was increased in sows fed 0.15 ppm Se from both inorganic and organic sources (Mahan and Peters, 2004). The major benefit of feeding organic Se seems to be the greater transfer of Se to the progeny. Neonatal pigs from sows fed organic Se are born with greater liver Se content then when sows are fed inorganic sources (Mahan and Kim, 1996). Several experiments have reported higher Se contents in colostrum and milk with organic Se supplementation (Mahan and Kim, 1996; Mahan, 2000; Mahan and Peters, 2004). This is likely related to selenomethionine being directly incorporated into the milk proteins. The effectiveness of Se incorporation into milk secretions is further demonstrated by feeding Se yeast for only six days before parturition, resulting in increased colostrum Se content (Mahan, 2000). The greater transfer of Se in the milk results in pigs having greater liver Se concentrations at weaning (Mahan and Kim, 1996).

The relatively high replacement rates for sows in commercial production systems and the fact that organic trace minerals have been demonstrated to decrease culling rates in dairy cattle has led to an increase in interest in the effect of organic trace minerals in sow diets on longevity and soundness. It is clear that reproductive performance in swine breeding herds is below the accepted potential for sows/gilts managed under commercial conditions. Smits (2003) indicated that an increase in both reproductive and structural problems was causing higher culling rates. He also noted that a parity-related reduction in sow performance was occurring much earlier, at parity 4-5, than has been traditionally assumed. A stable commercial unit at QAF Meats in Corowa, NSW, Australia was surveyed over a 12 month period (Hughes and Smits, 2002). Reproductive failure was mostly the result of post-weaning anestrous (26%) and a failure to conceive (20%). There was also a high percentage of sows that became pregnant and failed to continue pregnancy (36%). The number of sows/gilts culled for structural/skeletal problems was 14.9%. It is interesting to note that a large difference in live weight and back fat was observed in sows culled for locomotor difficulties compared with the general herd. The effect of organic minerals on lameness challenges in large confinement dairy herd systems have been more extensively investigated than those associated with large confinement swine systems. Although, lameness problems and associated foot lesions seem to be a major problem in the sow herd, and account for a large percent of the replacement rate problem experienced in confinement swine production systems. Research sponsored by Zinpro (Nocek et al., 2000) suggest that feeding complexed minerals improved double soling, white line separation, sole hemorrhages, sole ulcers, and papillomatous digital dermatitis and tended to reduce the incidence of wall ridges in dairy cows. Such studies have not been conducted in swine. Locomotor problems in swine refer to a number of conditions, such as lameness, injury, posterior paralysis, fracture and downer sow syndrome (D'Allaire et al., 1992). Causes of lameness identified in swine are osteochondrosis, foot rot, infectious arthritis, osteomalacia, and fractures (Hill et al., 1986). The impacts of mineral source on mineral status, skeletal/locomotor problems, longevity, and reproductive performance have not been sufficiently addressed.

Although the impact of mineral nutrition on mastitis has not been extensively investigated in sows, it has been in dairy cattle. Feeding Zn-methionine (Kellogg, 1990, Kellogg et al. 2004) and Zn-proteinate (Harris, 1995) decreased somatic cell counts. Caine et al. (2001) reported that a Zn AA complex (ZnAA) fed from d 80 of gestation to farrowing had a positive effect on intestinal development and immune function in pigs 24 h after being weaned at 14 d of age.
Additional research is required to clearly establish the role of organic minerals for improving the reproductive efficiency of high producing sows.

Objectives

1. To determine the effect of copper supplementation on the reproductive performance of sows.
   
2. To determine the effect of Appetein supplementation on the reproductive performance of sows.
   
3. To determine the effect of organic minerals on sow productivity and longevity.
   

Methods

General Procedures: These procedures will be followed for all objectives, except where specifically indicated within the discussion of each objective. 1. A standard corn-soybean meal gestation diet will be fed from breeding until sows enter the farrowing house at approximately d 110 of gestation. 2. A standard corn-soybean meal lactation diet will be fed from approximately d 110 of gestation through weaning. 3. Gilts or sows may be started on the study but sows should be no older then second or third parity. The females will be allotted to dietary treatment upon entering the farrowing house at approximately d 110 of gestation with attention given to balancing the allotment relative to parity, weight, and genetic background of the allotted females. Females completing one parity will be considered in the statistical analysis of the data; however, it is preferable for each female to remain on the study for three parities. Gilt and sow weights at farrowing (within 24 hours postpartum), at d 17 postpartum, and at weaning. 4. During gestation, sows will be fed according to standard practices taking into account environment and body condition. 5. Sows will be allotted to dietary treatment and will remain assigned to this diet for all subsequent lactations. Feed consumption will be recorded from farrowing to weaning. 6. During lactation, sows will be offered feed 2 to 3 times per day and fed to appetite. 7. Number and litter weight of pigs at birth (live and total), after cross-fostering, and at weaning will be recorded. Cross fostering should be kept to a minimum and within treatment if at all possible. Litter size should be standardized to 10 pigs per sow by day three post-farrowing. 8. After weaning all sows will be heat checked at least once per day, preferably twice, with intact boars and the number of days to first estrus recorded. 9. Representative feed samples will be collected from each mixing, pooled by diet and farrowing group, and a composite sample submitted for analysis of DM, CP, Ca and P. 10. Upon completion of data collection at each station, data will be sent to the objective coordinator. The objective coordinator will be responsible for pooling and verifying the data, running statistical analysis on the data, summarizing the data and writing the publications related to the data. Statistics analysis will correct for Station effects and Station by treatment interactions will be evaluated. Appropriate covariates will be used. Specific Procedures for each objective: To determine the effect of copper supplementation on the reproductive performance of sows: Coordinator: C. R. Dove. Stations which have indicated that they plan to participate in this objective are: AL, AR, FL, GA, KY. 1. Copper as tribasic copper chloride (TBCC) will be fed to sows at 100 ppm. Diets will be fed in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement, with or without TBCC during gestation or lactation. 2. Sows or gilts can be started on study and should remain on allotted treatment for at least 2 parities, 3 preferred. Stations that can keep sows on study for longer periods will be encouraged to do so. This will allow for the evaluation of experimental treatments on longevity. Stations that are able, will be encouraged to collect blood samples at the end of the gestation and lactation phases to determine copper status in the sows. 3. Breeding and parturition dates will be recorded and assigned to season. (Dec-Feb; winter; Mar-May; spring; Jun-Aug; summer; Sept-Nov; fall). Sows should be bred and farrowed in all seasons at each station if possible. To determine the effect of Appetein supplementation during lactation on the reproductive performance of sows: Coordinator: L. L. Southern. Stations that have indicated that they plan on participating in this objective are: AL, AR, BR, FL, GA, KY, LA, NC, OK, VA. 1. Appetein will be fed during the lactation period only at 0.5% of the diet. Diets will be formulated to contain the same levels of available amino acids and will be similar in energy density. 2. Sows and gilts will both be used in this study. 3. Litters should be cross-fostered so that all sows are nursing 10 pigs 24-36 hours post-partum. 4. Participating stations should breed sows to farrow in both summer and winter seasons. 5. Stations creep feeding should record amount of creep feed fed to each litter. To determine the effect of organic minerals on sow productivity and longevity: Coordinator: C. V. Maxwell. Stations that have indicated that they plan on participating in this objective are: AL, AR, BR, FL, GA, LA, SD, VA. 1. The study will be to determine the effect of feeding organically complexed minerals (Zn, Cu, and Mn) or inorganic trace minerals at iso-levels of Zn, Cu and Mn during gestation and lactation on reproductive performance and longevity. Total levels of these trace minerals will be 125 ppm Zn, 35 ppm Cu and 50 ppm Mn with the complexed organic trace minerals replacing 50, 20, and 10 ppm of the inorganic minerals, respectively. 2. Sows or gilts can be used in this experiment, and they will be continued for a minimum of two reproductive cycles. The initial allotment will be done prior to breeding and will be random from outcome groups of parity and weight. 3. Additional data collected in this study will include conception, farrowing rate, culling rate and reason for culling. Stations that are able will be encouraged to take blood samples at the end of the gestation and lactation phases for the determination of mineral status of the sows.

Measurement of Progress and Results

Outputs

• Collection and analysis of reproductive performance data on sows fed copper. Data collected will include parity, sow weights at farrowing (within 24 hours postpartum), at 17 d postpartum, and at weaning; feed consumption during lactation from farrowing to weaning; number and weights of pigs at birth (total and live), after cross-fostering, and at weaning; the number of days to first estrus after weaning. The effect of season will be evaluated. Blood samples for LH determination will be taken by at least one station. Random gestation and lacation fecal samples will be taken by at least two stations for determination of the impact of Cu excretion on the environment
• Collection and analysis of reproductive performance data on sows fed Appetein. Data collected will include parity, sow weights at farrowing (within 24 hours postpartum), at 17 days postpartum, and at weaning; feed consumption during lactation from farrowing to weaning; number and weights of pigs at birth (total and live), after cross-fostering, and at weaning; the number of days to first estrus after weaning. The effect of season will be evaluated.
• Collection and analysis of reproductive performance data on sows fed organic minerals. Data collected will include parity, sow weights at farrowing (within 24 hours postpartum), at 17 days postpartum, and at weaning; feed consumption during lactation from farrowing to weaning; number and weights of pigs at birth (total and live), after cross-fostering, and at weaning, and the number of days to first estrus after weaning. Farrowing rate and conception rate will be determined.

Outcomes or Projected Impacts

• We will be able to determine if sow reproductive efficiency is affected when sows are fed supplemental copper. If the results are positive, increases in sow productivity, especially during the warm seasons, will increase producer's income. The participating agricultural economist will provide an assessment of the economic feasibility of the application of this research.
• We will determine if the reproductive efficiency of sows is affected when fed supplemental Appetein. If the results are positive, increases in sow productivity, especially in the warm seasons, will increase producer's income and may reduce production costs. The participating agricultural economist will provide an assessment of the economic feasibility of the application of this research.
• We will determine if sow reproductive efficiency is affected when sows are fed organic minerals. If positive, increases in sow productivity and decrease in production costs will be seen. The participating agricultural economist will provide an assessment of the economic feasibility of the application of this research.

Milestones

Projected Participation

View Appendix E: Participation

Outreach Plan

Data from each objective will be published first in abstract form by the coordinator of the objective, and he/she will present the data orally or in poster form at a national or regional scientific conference. Next, a manuscript will be prepared and submitted to a refereed journal, probably the Journal of Animal Science. Each participant of the objectives may choose to publish their contribution to the objective in producer field days, university publications, or in a graduate student's thesis or dissertation. In addition, some members of the committee hold extension appointments, and all members of the committee interact with their extension colleagues or participate in extension functions.

Organization/Governance

The Multi-state research committee includes the regional Administrative Advisor (nonvoting); a technical representative of each cooperating experiment station, appointed by the respective Director; and a non-voting, consulting member representing CSREES. The Committee will elect a Chair, Vice-Chair, and Recorder. The Recorder position will be elected each year; the Vice-Chair will move into the position of Chair, the Recorder will move to the position of Vice-Chair. Administrative guidance will be provided by an assigned Administrative Advisor and a CSREES Representative.

Literature Cited

Aaron, D. K., and V. W. Hays. 1991. Statistical techniques for the design and analysis of swine nutrition experiments. In: (Eds.) E. R. Miller, D. E. Ullrey, and A. J. Lewis, Swine Nutrition, pp. 605-622, Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, MA 02180.


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