Brief Summary of Minutes of Annual Meeting

These are only a selection of 2018 results.  This large, collaborative group works on OVER 140 different species of arthropod and weed pests. 

Goal A:  Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies 

Objective 1.  Survey indigenous natural enemies. 

Surveys of parasitism of Epiphyas postvittana by resident parasitoids were conducted in California. Parasitism occurred wherever larval populations of this leafroller were found. Parasitism by Pediobius ni and the larval parasitoid Meteorus ictericus occurred throughout the region with Apanteles sp. in the south and Enytus eureka in the north also making important contributions to biotic resistance. 

Northern California vineyards were surveyed for the egg parasitoids (Anagrus spp.) attacking the Virginia creeper leafhopper. 

Field surveys for native and introduced egg parasitoids of the brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB) have been completed for southern California and in urban areas adjacent to agricultural production areas of the San Joaquin Valley that are at risk of BMSB invasion. Methods included deployment of frozen sentinel egg masses, field collection of BMSB egg masses, and sticky traps with BMSB pheromone. Results indicate little parasitism of fresh and frozen BMSB egg masses by resident egg parasitoids. Trissolcus japonicus, a self-introduced parasitoid of BMSB eggs from Asia, has not been detected in California. Sticky traps captured Astata sp., native predatory wasps of stink bugs. 

Completed field work in citrus orchards in southern California indicated that native predators, especially hover fly larvae, are predators of Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) nymphs. Adult flies are amenable to manipulation via the provisionment of floral resources placed in orchards.  Lobularia maritima is very attractive to adult hover flies. ACP infestations close to these flowering plants suffer significantly higher levels of mortality when compared to ACP patches that are not close to this cover crop. 

Research on ant parasitoids, which include invasive ants in the genera Pheidole, Solenopsis and Wasmannia, are included in a revision of the Orasema straminiepes species group. A large analysis of the subfamily based on Anchored Hybrid Enrichment procedures was published that will allow the use hundreds of gene loci to address both species level differences and their relationships. Results suggest a single invasion of the group into the New World, followed by an explosive radiation onto a number of different ant genera. 

Diaeretialla rapae and Aphidius colemani, previously been released on Guam, Saipan, and Palau in 1998, have not been recovered.  In addition, Lysephlebis testaceipes had been released nearly 20 years before, and only recovered in 1998 on Guam and Rota.

Euxestonotus error and Platygaster tuberosula have been evaluated for wheat midge management. In 2018, researchers were not able to release the parasitoids in midge infested wheat fields though the same 2016 parasitoid rearing procedure was used. Parasitoid emergence percentage was nearly zero, and only about 10 parasitoids were found to emergence in insect cages but at the end of crop harvest season. P. tuberosula was found in nearby released fields of 2016. Two characters were used for identification of this parasitoid.  It remained unclear what is the cause for not seeing the E. error in nearby released sites. Possibly it was due to difference in preference stage of wheat midge. 

Hypera postica is an important pest in forage alfalfa worldwide. Researchers examined the efficacy of a B. thuringiensis product against the H. postica in north central Montana. Because it has been suggested that efficiency of the parasitoids, Bathyplectes curculionis and Oomyzus incertus, was somewhat inversely proportional to host numbers, they sought to determine if a partial reduction of larval H. postica populations with a B. thuringiensis would yield to greater parasitoid efficiency, manifested as higher percent parasitism among the surviving larvae. The B. thuringiensis gave 27-40% reduction in weevil numbers at the low label rate, 55-59 % for the high label rate. Mean parasitism at the two research locations varied from 5-26% and 17-36% respectively, but application of the B. thuringiensis had no significant effect on parasitism levels, i.e. parasitism was not greater in treated than in carrier control plots.

Phyllotreta cruciferae is pest of canola in the Northern Great Plains of the USA. Field trials were conducted to test the efficacy of  several commercially available biopesticides including Entrust® , entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae + Barricade® (polymer  gel 1%), Aza-Direct® , Pyganic 1.4® EC, Grandevo® SC, Venerate® XC (Heat killed Burkholderia sp. strain A396 as seed treatment and foliar application) and Gaucho^® (chemical check) for P. cruciferae management at two locations in Montana. Products were evaluated based on canola leaf area injury ratings and seed yield levels. Although, there was no clear trend of canola yield increase, selected biopesticide treatments were effective in maintaining low leaf area injury ratings as compared to untreated control. Entrust was able to maintain low leaf area injury ratings (8.5-14.5%) when compared to untreated control (16.0-21.4%) at both the locations. Entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema feltiae + Barricade® and Venerate® applied as foliar treatments maintained significantly lower feeding injury pressure at Sweetgrass (11.8%) and Conrad (13.4%) locations respectively, when compared to the untreated control. Results suggest that these treatments were comparable in efficacy to the seed treatment Gaucho®. Other, biopesticide products- Aza-Direct® and Pyganic 1.4® EC treatments did not provide effective control of P. cruciferae at both the locations. 

Cephus cinctus (WSS) is an important wheat pest in the Northern Great Plains of US. This study provides information on synthetic plant defense elicitors (Actigard^® and cis-jasmone) and a botanical (Azadirachtin^®) products effect on adult settling behavior in no-choice and free-choice assays in the lab. These chemicals impact on WSS and winter wheat plant fitness, and Bracon spp. adult population and parasitism levels were determined under field conditions. The results showed that Actigard and Azadirachtin treatments significantly reduced percentage of adults settled on treated plants compared to control plants in free-choice, but without effects in no-choice assays. In field situations; regardless of application timing and sampling period, none of the chemicals significantly repelled and reduced adult population and infestation levels, respectively. However, Actigard two time applications had significantly lower infestation levels at 30 and 50 days post applications compared to control, but no effect at Conrad location. The field study indicated that Actigard two time applications significantly increased diapausing larval mortality rates and lowered stem lodging rates compared to control at all study locations. No significant differences were found in wheat yield and quality in plots treated with chemicals and controls at any location. Bracon spp. adult population and parasitism levels were not negatively affected with use of chemicals. 

Objective 2.  Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. 

Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year.  Many of these exploratory trips are only partially successful.  Species sent to quarantine facilities must survive the trip and reproduce.  Subsequent cultures will then be used for non-target host testing and evaluation for potential release.  Select studies follow.

In collaboration with the CDFA and USDA Biological Control Laboratory in France, importation continued of Psyllaphaegus spp. attacking olive psyllid.  This group also imported Psyttalia ponerophaga and P. lounsburyi attacking olive fruit fly.

Parasitoids of Macroglenes penetrans, Euxestonotus error and Platygaster tuberosula were exported from Canada to Western Montana every year from 2014 to 2018. Adults were released in wheat midge infested fields at several locations of Golden Triangle, Montana, in 2014. From 2015-2017, adults were regularly monitored in several locations. Surveys showed that this parasitoid species is now well established in Golden Triangle, Montana.

Two wheat midge parasitoids (Euxestonotus error and Platygaster tuberosula) were exported from Canada to Western Montana in 2015 to 2018. About 100 adults of each species were released in wheat midge infested fields of Valier Montana. Parasitoids monitoring and establishment studies will be conducted accordingly in future.

Foreign exploration was initiated for Euwallacea whitfordiodendrus (Polyphagous Shot Hole Borer) and E.kuroshio (Kuroshio Shot Hole Borer).

Objective 3.  Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies.

Descriptions are underway with USDA and Italian taxonomists of Drosophila suzukii parasitoids Asobara spp., Leptopilina japonica and Ganaspis brasiliensis. The same team is working on a description of Anagrus spp. collected in vineyards. 

Research continues on parasites of the imported fire ant (Solenopsis) in South America and of the Little Red Fire Ant (Wasmannia) in the Caribbean and Central America. Both standard Sanger-sequencing approaches, as well as novel anchored enrichment approaches to look at relationships and species identification across the entire genus are being used. In a larger phylogenetic analysis of the subfamily Oraseminae, results support an ancestral association with the genus Pheidole, followed by an ancient shift to the New World and diversification onto a wider variety of ant hosts, including Solenopsis, Wasmannia and other myrmicine ant hosts. 

Systematics research continues on leafminer parasitoids of the Citrus leafminer and the Citrus Peelminer.  Studies are focused on a revision of the Zagrammosoma on a worldwide basis. 

Research is underway to develop a molecular phylogeny for the Mymaridae.  Research is utilizing three different molecular approaches to look at congruence of results and the proposal of a new classification for the group. 

The NSF grant to revise the classification of the entire Chalcidoidea continues. This is a huge undertaking that involves molecular, morphological and bioinformatic approaches to resolve relationships of the superfamily, and to disseminate information on the group through electronic resources and a new book that outlines the classification and biology of the group. To date we have obtained nexgen sequencing data for over 600 taxa that cover the breadth of the entire superfamily. 

The systematics for the Euwallacea fornicatus species complex have been clarified, the polyphagous shot hole borer and the Kuroshio shot hole borer have received scientific names and can be distinguished in part on morphology, and completely when COI sequences are used. 

Objective 4.  Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release.

In collaboration with researchers at USDA, Italy, Oregon State University and colleagues in China and South Korea, researchers imported 8 parasitoid species that attack the spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii). These parasitoids included at least three larval parasitoids Asobara spp. , Leptopilina japonica and Ganaspis brasiliensis, and two pupal parasitoids, Pachycrepoideus vindimiae, Trichopria drosophilae. This material is currently being studied in quarantine.

In collaboration with the CDFA and USDA Biological Control Laboratory release efforts were continued with Psyttalia lounsburyi against the olive fruit fly in different regions of California and the evaluation of Psyttalia ponerophaga.

In collaboration with the CDFA and USDA Biological Control Laboratory quarantine studies were continued for Psyllaphaegus spp. attacking olive psyllid.

Host range and host specificity studies for the BMSB egg parasitoid, Trissolcus japonicus were completed in quarantine at UC Riverside. Data are still being analyzed, but preliminary results suggest that T. japonicus is polyphagous and it can develop on the eggs of several non-target species. However, attack and emergence rates tend to be somewhat greater on the target BMSB. 

A shipment of roots infested with Oporopsamma wertheimsteini was received in 2018. A study to determine the impact on rush skeletonweed at differing larval densities has been set-up. An impact study was conducted on Krigia biflora.  Larvae were transferred to test plants and plants were harvested after 60 days. No significant development of Oporopsamma larvae were observed and no significant differences were observed in plant biomass or in number of flowers between infested and non-infested control plants 

Objective 5.  Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. 

Many releases and redistributions of natural enemies (millions) were carried out against pests in 2018. Examples include follow. 

No Oberea erythrocephala were found at any of the 2017 release sites in New Mexico.  Collections of about 20,000 Aphthona spp. (primarily A. lacertosa) were made for redistribution from the Tusas insectary.  About 15,000 of these beetles were released on patches of spurge ranging from 6 to 54 ft in diameter using an inundative release strategy that has successfully controlled small patches.  Although a few Aphthona beetles were found using sweep nets, 5,000 additional beetles were released to supplement the new 2017 sites in Abiquiu.  

We established sites and released two new biological control agents on toadflaxes in NM.  100 Mecinus janthiniformis were released at each of two sites in Rio Arriba County, NM in June 2018 and 100 Mecinus janthinus were released on Yellow toadflax at each of five sites in Colfax County in May 2018. 

Russian knapweed was transplanted from three major field sites into greenhouses and planted in garden beds inside cages. The gall midge, Jaapiella ivannikovi, was encouraged to colonize the greenhouse plants.  These midges are being used to test the response of the midge to organic volatile compounds produced by Russian knapweed.  All available newly growing Russian knapweed is readily attacked and galled by the midges in the cages.  

Several field insectaries of J. ivannikovi were successfully established in New Mexico that only seems to produce early summer galls.  Work continues to establish field insectaries in four additional New Mexico counties.   The drought in much of New Mexico is slowing the success and expansion of new insectaries.  

Aulacidea acroptilonica is established in Rio Arriba County.  The population has doubled in area and exponentially increased the number of galled stems since last year.  An additional 3,000 adult wasps from Montana were released in 2018.  

Over 165,000 Aulacidea acroptilonica adults were reared from galls for redistribution against Russian knapweed. The majority of wasps were sent to county, federal, and state cooperators in four counties in Montana. Consignments were also made to New Mexico State University, the University of Wyoming and the Nez Perce Biocontrol Center. 

Approximately 2,400 galls of Jaapiella ivannikovi were released in Montana or consigned to the Nez Perce Biocontrol Center. 

Coconut Rhinoceros Beetles (CRB) invading Guam, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands are genetically different from other populations of this pest, are resistant to Oryctes nudivirus, and behave differently. For these reasons, they are referred to as the "the Guam Biotype" CRB-G.  Ongoing testing of 30 O. nudivirus strains collected from the Philippines in 2017 has revealed a single strain that shows virulence to CRB-G.  This strain was purified in New Zealand, and was subsequently sent to Guam where it was released during the Fall of 2017 using infected CRB as vectors.  Results of this release have revealed no virulence of any of the cultured strains of O. nudivurus to CRB on Guam. 

Anagrus daanei was introduced into the North Coast of California in 2015-2017, with mixed results. Molecular evaluations of the A. daanei in the North Coast and Sacramento Valley to are being conducted to determine if they are different strains or species. Previous work revealed that Anagrus epos was a complex of three species. Something similar may be happening with A. daanei. 

Objective 6.  Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. 

Photoperiodic responses were reevaluated for diapause induction in three populations (Manhattan KS, Ithaca NY, Manitoba, Canada) of Chrysopa oculata, a predator of aphids and other soft-bodied pests. Hypotheses were that (1) mean temperatures and / or the variation in annual temperatures have increased at both localities as a result of changes in climate, and (2) C. oculata populations at all localities have made corresponding changes in their diapause-inducing photoperiodic responses. These hypotheses are based on the prediction that insect populations should respond to environmental changes in temperature by altering their schedules of seasonal activity and dormancy, and it is assumed that local temperatures had likely changed in the intervening 30 years, based on global trends. Indeed, results showed that the patterns of diapause have changed for at least two of the populations. The critical photoperiod is still the same as it was 30 years ago and all of the change is clustered in the upper and lower tails of the diapause curve. With the population from New York, there has been a shift in the critical photoperiod such that half of the population is entering diapause about two weeks later in the autumn than was the case 30 years ago. This is suggestive of a shift toward warmer autumns, allowing lacewings more time for reproduction and growth in the late summer and early autumn. 

Russian knapweed: Eight sites were monitored for the gall midge and wasp, as well as plant density and cover. In general, populations of the gall midge, Jaapiella ivannikovi, were slightly greater this year probably due to the wet weather during the spring. In contrast populations of the gall wasp Aulacidea acroptilonica, were variable. 

Studies in Utah were completed indicating that biological control was not substantially compromised by any significant lag in natural enemies versus their host pests in colonizing short-lived field crops.  Parasitism of cereal leaf beetle and alfalfa weevil larvae by the introduced, host-specific parasitoids Tetrastichus julis and Bathyplectes curculionis, respectively, did not vary significantly with increasing distance (up to hundreds of meters) into newly planted fields. Thus, neither the cereal leaf beetle nor the alfalfa weevil initially gained substantial spatial refuge from parasitism by more strongly dispersing than their specialist natural enemies into newly created habitat. 

Manipulative experiments were used to examine the impacts of the toadflax stem weevil M. janthinus on yellows toadflax performance. When caged onto single plants two, six or 10 pairs of weevils significantly reduced root biomass. Weevils did not appear to effect above ground biomass during the season they attacked. 

Flight and fecundity have been studied as a new means of measuring diapause induction of individuals of the species Diorhabda carinulata, a biological control agent of Tamarisk. Over 1000 beetles have had phenotypic measurements taken, and they are being sent to collaborators for genotyping. 

Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. 

Objective 7.  Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions.

A three-year research and extension study has been collaboratively ongoing to improve biological control of the Virginia creeper leafhopper, including better understanding the alternate leafhopper hosts and the plants that support these leafhopper populations.

Work on Asian citrus psyllid biological control has clearly demonstrated the negative impacts the invasive Argentine ant (AA) has on the parasitoid Tamarixia radiata and some generalist predators. Controlling AA with liquid baits significantly increases parasitism rates and predator densities in citrus. Consequently, pest infestations of citrus flush, branches, and fruit dropped significantly in comparison to untreated control blocks. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to use biodegradable hydrogel beads instead of plastic bait stations for AA control and three applications of gels applied to the orchard floor under trees spaced 2 weeks apart reduces AA densities by 85% in comparison to untreated controls. This level of suppression is comparable to applying chlorpyrifos to the orchard floor and tree trunks to kill foraging AA. The strength of the hydrogels in comparison to sprays of broad-spectrum contact insecticides is that liquid baits kill subterranean queens and brood and there are no lethal residues or drift that kills natural enemies. 

Research on citrus peelminer and citrus leafminer has involved assistance with the identification of parasitoids from field studies in California and central Mexico. 

The longevity and fecundity has been studied of two key parasitoids, Anagrus erythroneurae and Anagrus daanei of leafhopper pests in California grapes (grape leafhopper, variegated leafhopper, and Virginia creeper leafhopper). 

Objective 8.  Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control.

Drought seems to be the limiting factor for the successful expansion of the gall midge, Jaapiella ivannikovi. Populations of gall midges were followed through an extended drought during 2018.  In 2017, thousands of galls were present in NM insectaries and by the end of 2018 populations were difficult to find. 

Researchers continued to survey invasive ants on the islands of Guam, Saipan, Tinian, and Rota in the Mariana Islands.  This activity is part of an ongoing USDA-APHIS-CAPS funded project on the surveillance of Wasmannia auropunctata and Solenopsis invicta on Guam and the CNMI.  A related study seeks to describe attendance behavior of Guam’s invasive ants towards aphids, scales and mealybugs commonly encountered in the Marianas, and the effects this might have on biological control agents against hemipteran plant pests. 

Studies were initiated to examine non-target effects (primarily on heteropteran predators) of Bt cotton, targeting plant bugs and thrips using natural enemy community sampling and life tables to assess impacts on biological control of whiteflies. 

A two-year field study demonstrated no non-target impacts of Bt eggplant on arthropod natural enemies in Bangladesh. Bt eggplants provided high levels of target pest control with significant economic gains. 

Field studies were initiated to examine non-target impacts of several new putatively selective insecticides on arthropod natural enemies of whitefly in cotton. Life tables measured direct impacts on biological control services. Plot size was varied to determine optimal plot size for non-target evaluations). 

Studies are working to characterize a community of RNA viruses that infect the predatory bug Geocoris pallens to determine which, if any, are virulent and might be associated with increased expression of cannibalism in G. pallens populations. 

Farmer data was used to determine which insecticides currently used in citrus pest management are most disruptive to Euseius tularensis predatory mite populations, thereby interfering with biological control of either citrus red mite or citrus thrips.  Results gave farmers recommendations for which materials to use to retain their key biocontrol agents within their groves. 

Objective 9.  Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. 

Research is ongoing on the effect of ground covers in pistachios and whether these harbor pest insects (primarily hemipterans) or their natural enemies.

Completed work has demonstrated that conservation biological control of Asian citrus psyllid natural enemies significantly increases predator activity towards colonies of immature ACP. Provisionment of flowering plants, especially alyssum, recruits and retains adult hover flies. These highly vagile adults lay eggs on ACP patches and larvae are voracious predators of ACP nymphs. In citrus orchards, ACP mortality from larval hover fly predation is significantly greater in the vicinity of alyssum when compared to control plots lacking this cover crop. 

We analyzed data from our experiment at the University of Wyoming Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Center to test whether the diversity and presence of cover crops interseeded into standing corn impacts the activity-density and diversity of ground beetles. Producers are interested in this practice to increase forage available for grazing cattle, but we have limited research available to predict how it will impact other parts of the ecosystem. We found that carabid activity-density did not change in response to the presence of cover crops or the type of cover crop planted, which may have partially been due to vegetative cover provided by weeds in the field. 

Research has been conducted to evaluate the attractiveness of various annual and perennial flowering plants to pollinators and natural enemies. Results from this work will be used to select suitable plants to include in habitat plantings associated with saffron to combat bulb mites. Field beds of saffron have been established at the University of Vermont Horticultural Research Center. This site will serve as the location for planting habitat bands of annual and perennial flowering plants in 2019. These plantings will serve as attractive environments for pollinators and natural enemies that could contribute to reducing bulb mite populations. 

Studies demonstrated effective conservation biocontrol of macadamia felted coccid by means of cultural management of orchard canopies. Researchers also identified insect pathogenic fungi that may contribute to macadamia felted coccid suppression. 

Goal C:  Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. 

Objective 10.  Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. 

Significant progress was made on the temperature requirements for the development of two Asian citrus psyllid parasitoids, Tamarixia radiata and Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis, and one of their hyperparasitoids, Psyllaphycus diaphorinae. These studies compared developmental rates across multiple temperatures when experimental temperatures were either held constant for 24 hr or set to fluctuate over a 24 hr period to give an average temperature equal to the constant 24 hr temperature setting. Programmable temperature cabinets were used for these studies and temperature cycles were modeled on temperature fluctuations downloaded from weather stations. Non-linear model fits demonstrated that developmental rates, estimates for minimum, optimal, and upper lethal temperatures, and degree-day accumulations for development, and adult parasitoid longevity are significantly affected by mean temperature and the associated exposure regimen (i.e., constant vs. fluctuating). These data have significant value for modeling parasitoid establishment and impacts in varying geographic locations with significantly different climatic conditions. 

A project has been initiated characterizing the volatile organic compounds from Russian knapweed and determining which bioactive compounds influence the behavior of adult gall midges.  

An in vitro assay has been developed and tested to evaluate the activation of entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) infective juveniles when exposed to different host insect tissue. Studies evaluated the degree to which activation correlated with the virulence of the EPN species against a variety of insect hosts including beneficial and pest arthropods. This assay may be useful in screening the potential efficacy of EPNs against certain arthropod pests 

Objective 11.  Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. 

Results have been reported under other objectives, but a few specific examples from 2018 follow. 

Cold storage of the Drosophila suzukii parasitoids Pachycrepoideus vindimiae (Pteromalidae), Trichopria drosophilae (Diapriidae) was studied in order to improve mass production.

Wasps in the genus Trichogramma, because of their ability to control a wide range of Lepidoptera, are probably the most widely produced and released beneficial insect.  The parasitoids are most commonly produced on eggs of the Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia kuehniella.  Efficient rearing of Trichogramma spp. depends on the quality of host eggs that can affect the acceptance of eggs for parasitism by female wasps, growth and development of the parasitoids, and the quality and sex ratio of the parasitoid progeny. 

It was determined that E. kuehniella produced significantly larger eggs when the larvae were fed a nutritionally enhanced diet versus adequate or minimal diets, and T. brassicae oviposited more eggs on the larger host eggs.  Emergence of wasps was equivalent from E. kuehniella eggs regardless of size; however, more female wasps were produced from the larger eggs. 

Continued experiments on means to condition Trichogramma species released augmentatively, to search in atypicalhabitats.  Studies also demonstrated efficacy of Beauveria bassiana in coffee berry borer management. 

Objective 12.  Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. 

Many results have been reported under other objectives.  A few examples follow:

Collaborative studies on a three-year research and extension study to improve biological control of the Virginia creeper leafhopper, including the augmentative release of Anagrus spp. to help suppress leafhopper pests in vineyards continue.

In collaboration with researchers at USDA, a project has released two pupal parasitoids, Pachycrepoideus vindimiae and Trichopria drosophilae  near blue berry and strawberry fields to ‘inoculate’ these resident parasitoids before and after the harvest cycle. 

The first critical step for a successful augmentation program is to identify the pest organism. Researchers located an infestation of bulb mites in saffron grown in a high tunnel in Vermont. Three different species of bulb mites were identified. They were Rhizoglyphus robini, Sancassania anomala and Carpoglyphus lactis.

To assess the suitability of an augmentative release program using a soil dwelling predatory insect, it was necessary to establish a lab colony of the target pest. A rearing method using potato dextrose agar (PDA) was evaluated. PDA was tested alone, PDA with an antibiotic and PDA with an antibiotic and a fungicide. Bulb mites grew best on PDA with an antibiotic. Specifically when 12 mites were placed in a Petri dish with PDA and an antibiotic, within 2 weeks the population increased to 135 mites, an 11-fold increase. Populations decreased in weeks 3 and 4. The reason for the rapid decrease is under investigation. The ultimate goal is to maintain a culture of the mites for test purposes. 

Studies determined the effect of host feeding on the egg laying by the Asian Citrus Psyllid parasitoid Tamarixia radiata. 

Researchers released M. janthinus at 7 sites in Colorado against toadflax, and the weevils have established at each site. Of two field releases of R. linariae, evidence was obtained that one release resulted in establishment. 

Goal D:  Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control. 

Objective 13.  Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents. 

Many results have been reported under other objectives.  One example follows:

Studies are in the process of identifying populations of Diorhabda with hybrid beetles against toadflax. Researchers sampled potential populations twice and have genotyped the beetles. They have also initiated growth of plants for testing, focusing on two species related to Tamarix, one a native plant and one an ornamental. 

Objective 14.  Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs.

During 2018, the one laboratory presented at 32 research or grower-oriented programs to reach an estimated audience of about 3000 persons (estimated at 100 persons per presentation)

Over this review period 25 extension talks were given on Asian citrus psyllid biocontrol, management of invasive ants for enhancing biocontrol in citrus, conservation biocontrol of natural enemies in the citrus ecosystem, biological control of avocado pests, and biological control of brown marmorated stink bug. Two field workshops on citrus pest biocontrol and biocontrol of invasive pests in California were organized in this review period. Three web pages were developed on biocontrol of Asian citrus psyllid.

As part of an NSF project modules were developed that explain parasitoids to high school students, Master Gardeners and other venues (http://outreach.chalcid.org/). The approach is to teach more upper-division students or adults about the importance of parasitoids in biological control. More outreach materials is being developed to teach about chalcidoids and other parasitic Hymenoptera in the classroom. The idea is to develop independent modules for classrooms centered on yellow pan trap ‘observatories’ as a means to discuss ‘true’ biodiversity. Ideas for outreach are being vetted through a broad group of local teachers, and extension researchers at UC Riverside and Texas A&M University. 

The annual USDA-APHIS-PPQ workshop held in Guam in March resumed in March 2018 without SPC participation.  It is hoped SPC's financial situation will ameliorate and allow their future participation and financial support for the PPQ workshops in the future.

Media coverage of research in Montana is summarized below:

Traders Dispatch: Valuable information shared at regional biological control meeting held in Montana. November 2018.

Independent Observer: Biological control in plant pest management systems annual meeting. November 01, 2018.

Prairie Star: Western Triangle hosts several MSU breeders, crop researchers at field days. July 26, 2018.

Traders Dispatch: A focused effort to manage wireworms in the Golden Triangle Area of Montana. July 2018.

The Prairie Star: What treatments best control economically-damaging canola insect pests? June 8, 2018.

Traders Dispatch: Insect pathogenic nematodes for the management of wireworms. January 2018.

Alonso V., Nasrolahi S., & Dillman A.R. (2018) Host-specific activation of entomopathogenic nematode infective juveniles. Insects 9(2): 59 DOI: 10.3390/insects9020059.

Andersen, J.C. and Mills, N.J. 2018. Comparative genetics of invasive populations of walnut aphid, Chromaphis juglandicola, and its introduced parasitoid, Trioxys pallidus, in California. Ecology and Evolution 8: 801-811.

Briar, S., F. Antwi, G. Shrestha, A. Sharma and G.V.P. Reddy. 2018. Potential biopesticides for crucifer flea beetle, Phyllotreta cruciferae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) management under dryland canola production in Montana. Phytoparasitica 47: 247–254.

Burks, R.A., Heraty, J.M., Dominguez, C. J. Mottern. 2018. Complex diversity in a mainly tropical group of ant parasitoids: Revision of the Orasema stramineipes species group (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Eucharitidae). Zootaxa 44: 107 pp.

Burks, R.A., Krogmann, L., J.M. Heraty. 2018. Simultaneous discovery and taxonomic placement of new extant and fossil genera of Herbertiinae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae). Insect Systematics and Diversity 2: 1–7. doi: 10.1093/isd/ixy012

Coelho A, Stouthamer R, Parra JRP (2018) Flight propensity of isofemale lines of Trichogramma pretiosum Riley in two relative humidity levels. Florida Entomologist 101 (3), 364-368

Cooper, M. L., Daugherty, M. P., Jeske, D. R., Almeida, R. P. P. Daane, K. M. 2018. Incidence of grapevine leafroll disease: effects of grape mealybug (Pseudococcus maritimus) abundance and pathogen supply. Journal of Economic Entomology 111(4): 1542–1550. doi: 10.1093/jee/toy124

Daane, K. M., Hogg, B. N., Wilson, H., and Yokota, G. Y. 2018. Native grass ground covers in California vineyards provide multiple ecosystem services. Journal of Applied Ecology 55: 2473–2483. DOI:10.1111/1365-2664.13145

Daane, K. M., Middleton, M. C., Sforza, R. F. H., Kamps-Hughes, N., Watson, G. W., Almeida, R. P. P., Correa, M. C. G., Downie, D. A., and Walton, V. M. 2018. Determining the geographic origin of invasive populations of the mealybug Planococcus ficus based on molecular genetic analysis. PLoS One 13(3): e0193852. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193852

Daane, K. M., Vincent, C., Isaacs, R., and Ioriatti, C. 2018. Entomological opportunities and challenges for sustainable viticulture in a global market. Annual Review of Entomology 63: 193-214. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-010715-023547

Dalton, D. T., Hilton, R. J., Kaiser, C., Daane, K. M., Sudarshana, M. R., Vo, J., Zalom, F. G., Buser, J. Z., and Walton, V. M. 2018. Grapevine red blotch virus spread and associative mapping of Grapevine leafroll associated virus-3 in Oregon vineyards. Plant Disease (in press)

Edwards, C., J. A. Rosenheim, and M. Segoli.  2018.  Aggregating fields of annual crops to form larger-scale monocultures can suppress dispersal-limited herbivores.  Theoretical Ecology 11:321-331.

Endriss, SB, C Alba, AP Norton, P Pyšek, RA Hufbauer. 2018. Breakdown of a geographic cline explains high performance of introduced populations of a weedy invader. Journal of Ecology. 106:699-713 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.12845

Evans, E.W.  2018.  Dispersal in host-parasitoid interactions: crop colonization by pests and specialist enemies.  Insects 9(4), article 134: 1-14. [online publication doi:10.3390/insects9040134]

Freedman, M.G., R.H. Miller, and H.S. Rogers. 2018.  Landscape-level bird loss increases the prevalence of honey-dew-producing insects and non-native ants.  Oecologia, (OECO-D-18-00198R1).

Gebiola M, Gomes-Marco F, Simmons G, Stouthamer R (2018). Effect of host feeding on life history traits of Tamarixia radiata, parasitoid of the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri. BioControl DOI 1007/s10526-018-9903-7

Gomez DF, Skelton J, Steininger MS, Stouthamer R, Rugman-Jones PF, Sittichaya W,  Rabaglia RJ, Hulcr J. 2018. Species delineation within the Euwallacea fornicatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) complex revealed by morphometric and phylogenetic analyses. Insect Systematics and Diversity 2 doi.org/10.1093/isd/ixy018

Greco, E., Wright, M.G., Burgueno, J., & Jaronski, S. 2018. Efficacy of Beauveria bassiana applications on coffee berry borer across an elevation gradient in Hawaii. Biocontrol Science & Technology https://doi.org/10.1080/09583157.2018.1493088

Gutierrez-Coarite, R., Heller, W.P., Wright, M.G., Mollinedo, J., Keith, L., Sugiyama, L, & Chun, S. 2018. Entomopathogenic fungi as mortality factors of macadamia felted coccid (Eriococcus ironsidei) in Hawaii. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 50: 9-16.

Gutierrez-Coarite, R., Mollinedo, J, Cho, A., Wright, M.G. 2018. Canopy management of macadamia trees and understory plant diversification to reduce macadamia felted coccid (Eriococcus ironsidei) populations. Crop Protection 113: 75-83.

Gutierrez-Coarite, R., Yoneishi, N., Mollinedo, J., Pulakkattu-thodi, I., Wright, M.G., & Geib, S. PCR-based gut content analysis to detect predation of Eriococcus ironsidei (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae) by Coccinellidae species in macadamia nut orchards in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy019.

Haider Prodhan, Md. Z., Hasan, Md. T., Islam Chowdhury, Md. M., Alam, Md. S., Rahman, Md. L., Azad, K.A., Hossain, Md. J., Naranjo, S.E., Shelton, A.M. Bt eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) in Bangladesh: Fruit production and control of eggplant fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee), effects on non-target arthropods and economic returns. PLoS One (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205713).

Heraty, J.M., Burks, R.A., Mbanyana, N., van Noort, S. 2018. Morphology and life history of an ant parasitoid, Psilocharis afra (Hymenoptera: Eucharitidae). Zootaxa: 4482: 491–510.

Hoddle, M.S. K. Mace, J. Steggall. 2018. Proactive biological control: a cost-effective management option for invasive species. California Agriculture 72: 148-150,    https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.2018a0027  

Hogg, B. N., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Aerial dispersal ability as a driver of spider success in a crop landscape. Ecological Entomology 43: 683–694. doi.org/10.1111/een.12641

Hogg, B. N., Nelson, E. H., Hagler, J. R., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Foraging distance of the Argentine ant relative to effectiveness of a liquid bait control strategy. Journal of Economic Entomology 111(2): 672–679. doi: 10.1093/jee/tox366

Honěk, A., Martinkova, Z., Evans, E. W., and Skuhrovic, J.  2017.  Estimating prey consumption in natural populations of Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) using production of feces.  Journal of Economic Entomology 110: 2406-2412.

Ingels, C. A., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Phenology of brown marmorated stink bug and trap and lure studies in a California urban landscape. Journal of Economic Entomology 111(2): 780–786. doi: 10.1093/jee/tox361

Irvin, N.A., J.R. Hagler, and M.S. Hoddle. 2018. Measuring natural enemy dispersal from cover crops in a California vineyard. Biological Control 126: 15-25.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2018.07.008   

Ivezic A, Rugman-Jones P, Stouthamer R, Ignjatovic-Cupin A (2018) Molecular identification of Trichogramma egg parasitoids of Ostrinia nubilalis in northeastern Serbia. Archives of Biological Sciences 70: 425-432. DOI: 10.2298/ABS171103002I

Jalali, M. A., Sakaki, S., Ziaaddini, M., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Temperature-dependent development of Oenopia conglobata (Col.: Coccinellidae) fed on Aphis gossypii (Hem.: Aphididae). International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 38(4): 410-417.

Janšta, P., Cruaud, A., Delvare, G., Genson, G., Heraty, J., Krízková, B., Rasplus, R.-Y. 2018. Torymidae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) revised: molecular phylogeny, circumscription and reclassification of the family with discussion of its biogeography and evolution of life-history traits. Cladistics 34: 627–651. doi: 10.1111/cla.12228

Karami, A., Y. Fathipour, A.A. Talebi, and G.V.P. Reddy. 2018. Parasitism capacity and searching efficiency of Diaeretiella rapae parasitizing Brevicoryne brassicae on susceptible and resistant canola cultivars. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 21: 1095–1101.

Karp, D. S., R. Chaplin-Kramer, T. D. Meehan, E. A. Martin, F. DeClerck, H. Grab, C. Gratton, L. Hunt, A. Larsen, A. Martinez-Salinas, M. O’Rourke, A. Rusch, K. Poveda, W. Zhang, M. Jonsson, J. A. Rosenheim, N. Schellhorn, T. Tscharntke, S. Wratten, et al.  2018.  Crop pests and predators exhibit inconsistent responses to surrounding landscape composition.  PNAS 115:E7863-7870.

Koontz, M, M Oldfather, BA Melbourne, RA Hufbauer. 2018. Parsing propagule pressure: Number, not size, of introductions drives colonization success in a novel environment. Ecology and Evolution. 8:8043-8054

Lara, J.R., C. Pickett, E. Grafton-Cardwell, P. Gordon, J. Reger, S. Figueroa, M. Romo, J. Oliva, M. S. Hoddle. 2018. Stinky in high numbers: What’s new with brown marmorated stink bug in California? CAPCA Adviser 21: 44-48.

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Lisbeth Espinoza-Lozano, L., S. Guerrero, M. C. Giurcanu, N. C. Leppla, A. C. Hodges and L. S. Osborne.  2018. Alternatives to a synthetic pyrethroid for controlling Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), on Coleus Cuttings. Florida Entomologist. 101: 389-394.

Livingston, G., L. Hack, K. Steinmann, E. E. Grafton-Cardwell, and J. A. Rosenheim.  2018.  An ecoinformatics approach to field scale evaluation of pesticide efficacy and hazards in California citrus.  Journal of Economic Entomology 111:1290-1297.

McEvoy, P. B. 2018. Theoretical contributions to biological control success. BioControl 63:87-103.

Mills, N.J. 2018. An alternative perspective for the theory of biological control. Insects 9(4): 131.

Mills, N.J. 2018. Plant Health Management: Biological Control of Insect Pests. Reference Module in Food Science. Elsevier, pp. 1–13.

Mills, N.J. and Heimpel, G.E. 2018. Could increased understanding of foraging behavior help to predict the success of biological control? Current Opinion in Insect Science 27: 26–31.

Milosavljević I., H.A.F. EL-Shafie, J.R. Faleiro, C.D. Hoddle, M. Lewis, and M.S. Hoddle. 2018. Palmageddon: the wasting of ornamental palms by invasive palm weevils, Rhynchophorus spp. J. Pest Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-018-1044-3

Milosavljević I., R. Amrich, V. Strode, and M.S. Hoddle. 2018. Modeling the phenology of Asian citrus psyllid (Hemiptera: Liviidae) in urban southern California: effects of environment, habitat, and natural enemies. Environmental Entomology 47: 233-243. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvx206  

Naranjo, S.E. 2018. Retrospective analysis of a classical biological control programme. Journal of Applied Ecology 55: 2439–2450.

Ode PJ, Keasar T, Segoli M. 2018. Lessons from the multitudes: insights from polyembryonic wasps for behavioral ecology. Current Opinion in Insect Science 27: 32-37.

Park, I, M. Schwarzländer, H.L. Hinz, U. Schaffner, S.D. Eigenbrode.  2018. A simple approach to evaluate behavioral responses of insect herbivores to olfactory and visual cues simultaneously: the double stacked y-tube device and portable volatile collection system.  Arthro. Plnt. Inter. (online first) https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-018-9663-4

Park, I. and D.C. Thompson. 2018. Unisexual broods of Asphodylia species in new floral bud galls on mesquite in New Mexico. Southwest. Entomol. 43:585-589.

Park, I., S.D. Eigenbrode, S. Cook, H.L. Hinz, U. Schaffner, and M. Schwarzländer. 2018. Examining olfactory and visual cues governing host-specificity of a weed biological control candidate species to refine pre-release risk assessment. BioControl Special Issue: Biological Control of Weeds 63: 337-389.

Pearse IS, Paul R, Ode PJ. 2018. Variation in plant defense suppresses herbivore performance Current Biology 28: 1981-1986.

Pellissier, M.E. and Jabbour, R. 2018. Herbivore and parasitoid insects respond differently to annual and perennial floral strips in an alfalfa ecosystem. Biological Control 123: 28-35.

Peters, R.S., Niehuis, O., Gunkel, S., Bläser, M., Mayer, C., Podsiadlowski, L., Kozlov, A., Donath, A., van Noort, S. Liu, S., Zhou, X., Misof, M., Heraty, J., Krogmann, L. 2018. Transcriptome sequence-based phylogeny of chalcidoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) reveals a history of rapid radiations, convergence, and evolutionary success. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 120: 286–296.

Portman, S.L., S.T. Jaronski, D.K. Weaver and G.V.P. Reddy. 2018. Advancing biological control of the wheat stem sawfly: New strategies in a 100 year struggle to manage a costly pest in the Northern Great Plains. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 111: 85–91.

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Tian, J.C., Wang, X.P., Chen, Y., Romeis, J., Naranjo, S.E., Hellmich, R.L., Wang, P., Shelton, A.M. 2018. Bt cotton producing Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab does not harm two parasitoids, Cotesia marginiventris and Copidosoma floridanum. Scientific Reports 8:307 (DOI:10.1038/s41598-017-18620-3).

Vahsen, ML, K Shea, CL Hovis, BJ Teller, RA Hufbauer. 2018. Prior adaptation, diversity, and introduction frequency mediate the positive relationship between propagule pressure and establishment success. Biological Invasions. 20:.2451–2459 DOI: 10.1007/s10530-018-1713-4

Vandervoet, T., Ellsworth, P.C., Carriere, Y., Naranjo, S.E. Quantifying conservation biological control for management of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in cotton. Journal of Economic Entomology 111: 1056-1068.

Wang, X.–G., Nance, A., Jones, J. M. L., Hoelmer, K. A., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Aspects of the biology and developmental strategy of two Asian larval parasitoids evaluated for classical biological control of Drosophila suzukii. Biological Control 121: 58-65. doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2018.02.010

Wang, X.–G., Serrato, M. A., Son, Y., Walton, V. M., and Daane, K. M. 2018. Thermal performance of two indigenous pupal parasitoids attacking the invasive Drosophila suzukii (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Environmental Entomology 47(3):764-772. doi: 10.1093/ee/nvy053

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Wilson, H., Wong, J., Thorp, R., Miles, A. F., Daane, K. M., and Altieri, M. A. 2018. Summer flowering cover crops support wild bees in vineyards. Environmental Entomology 47(1): 63-69. doi: 10.1093/ee/nvx197

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