Brief Summary of Minutes of Annual Meeting

Chair Gary Moss called the meeting to order at 8:30 am on Monday, May 30, 2011. Kim Vonnahme, Secretary, was not present at the meeting. A motion was made by Dave Kreider and second by Terry Nett to select Tracy Davis, Member-at-Large for 2010-2011, to be Secretary for this meeting. There were no objections. Minutes from the 2010 meeting were approved without discussion. Colin Kaltenbach requested that those present provide update for the membership list for NIMSS. Colin also announced that this was his last year serving as the Administrative Advisor for W1112. Colin was thanked for all his years of service and that he will be missed. At this time it is unknown who will serve as the new W1112 Administrative Advisor. It was discussed that the group would prefer an Administrative Advisor with animal experience, but the decision is not ours and a committee will decide. Mark Mirando was unable to attend the meeting but did provide a NIFA update presented by Colin Kaltenbach. Director of NIFA, Dr. Roger Beachy, resigned in May 2011. The Acting Director of NIFA is Dr. Chavonda Jacobs-Young. The Undersecretary for Research, Education and Economics (REE) is Dr. Catherine Woteki, former Dean of Agriculture at Iowa State University and first Undersecretary for Food Safety under the Clinton administration. Dr. Woteki also serves as the USDA Chief Scientist. The NIFA budget was decreased and increased for Hatch program for FY2011 Continuing Resolution. A copy of the NIFA Budget report with remaining figures not discussed is included as an attachment. Status of W1112 Project Renewal Colin Kaltenbach commented that our project renewal proposal was submitted in January. There were slight issues with the rewrite that have been addressed. The reviewers considered the second objective to be written more as an outcome rather than an objective. The outcome was rewritten to include Discover or translate. The rewrite for W1112 project has been resubmitted, but has yet to be approved. Gary Moss mentioned that for future rewrites of the project, it would be helpful to keep better track of the collaborative efforts. This can be easily done on a yearly basis with the collaborations listed in the report. An impact statement is required on the website for 2006  2011 report. The current project does not end until fall 2011, so there is time before the statement is needed. The impact statement should contain a dollar value because the money impacts of our collaborative research efforts are a measurement to send to congress in support of the budget. Andrea Cupp, Brenda Alexander, Ron Randall, and Dave Kreider will write an impact statement and discuss tomorrow. Ryan Ashley was nominated by Andrea Cupp and second by Tracy Davis to be Member-at-Large for 2011-2012. The discussion continued since Kim Vonnahme was not present at the 2011 meeting, she would serve as Secretary for 2011-2012. Tracy Davis would serve as Chair for 2011-2012. All participants were in favor of these motions. Brenda Alexander suggested that we table the discussion for next years meeting until Tuesday. The remainder of the afternoon was dedicated to station reports for Texas, Arkansas, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Florida, Oregon, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Idaho. Fred Stormshak informed everyone that this would be his last meeting with the W1112 project. His participation will be greatly missed. Meeting was adjourned at 4:30 by Gary Moss. Tuesday, May 31, 2011 Meeting was called to order by Gary Moss at 8:10 a.m. Station reports were completed by newest member Dale ZoBell from Utah State University. Business: Impact statement was complete and all participants agreed to forward the statement directly to Colin Kaltenbach. Registration fees were paid. Collaborative projects for 2011-2012 were discussed. Collaborators: Nebraska, Washington Project: Dept of Health & Human Services grant 2009- 2011. Joint publication has been submitted and submission of NIH RO1 grant June 15 titled Role of VEGFA Isoforms on Spermatogonial Stem Cell Renewal. Collaborators: Idaho, Washington Project: Evaluate enhanced luteal function on conceptus length and IFNT production in lactating dairy cows. Collaborators: Idaho, Colorado Project: Use of new generation of sequencing using isolated gonadotropes. Collaborators: Idaho, Colorado Project: Adenoviral delivery of dominant negative dynamin into the ovine pituitary and the effects of estradiol release on LH release. Collaborators: Colorado, Idaho Project: RIA for IFNt and Colorado providing reagents for RIA to Idaho. Collaborators: Colorado, Hawaii, Texas Project: Continue to analyze the data from the PGE project and write manuscripts. Collaborators: Arkansas, Utah Project: Share reproductive and genetic data. Collaborators: Colorado, Arizona Project: Develop an assay to evaluate progesterone receptors in mitochondria. Collaborators: Colorado, Wyoming Project: Develop a more efficient and cost effective method to synchronize estrus in cattle. Collaborators: Arizona, New Mexico Project: Share data about stress response and impact on placental factors and implantation. Collaborators: Arizona, Florida Project: Share data from microarray of bovine blastocysts and trophoblast cell line. Collaborators: Arizona, Wyoming Project: Insulin secretion in isolated pancreatic islet cells. Collaborators: Arizona, Colorado Project: Evaluate vascularization of pancreatic islets. Collaborators: New Mexico, Florida Project: Share bovine trophoblast cell line and compare genomic data obtained from bovine placenta and endometrium. Collaborators: Montana (Miles City), Michigan, Missouri Project: Investigate the role of follicle size at the time of ovulation on establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. Collaborators: Montana (Miles City), South Dakota, Missouri, Washington Project: Investigate the role of estradiol on pregnancy establishment and uterine expression in ovariectomized cows and intact heifers. Collaborators: Florida, Nebraska Project: Examine VEGF in bovine endometrium and placenta. Collaborators: Florida, Washington Project: Effect of inhibiting FGF in reproductive tract during early pregnancy in cattle. Collaborators: New Mexico, Montana Project: Metabolic hormone patterns in ewe lambs with differing RFIs. Collaborators: New Mexico, Colorado Project: Nutrient restriction vs. metabolic hormone patterns. Collaborators: New Mexico, Colorado Project: Thyroid involvement in BVD infected cows. Collaborators: New Mexico, Arkansas Project: Metabolic hormone profiles in cows consuming endophyte infected fescue. Collaborators: New Mexico, Ohio Project: Follicular fluid IGF. Collaborators: Wyoming, Montana Project: Meta-analysis of birth type on ewe reproductive performance. Collaborators: Colorado, Ohio Project: ISG mRNAs in maternal blood and IFNt in conceptus. Collaborators: Colorado, Washington Project: Use of mouse ISG15 knockout model to understand the role of ISG15 in bovine uterus. Collaborators: Michigan, Florida Project: Extended oocyte/embryo culture. Collaborators: Ohio, Pennsylvania Project: Role of MX and IFNt in cattle. Collaborators: Arkansas, New Mexico Project: Pasture systems and reproduction. Final Business: Terry Nett informed the participants that a new RIA was developed for IFNt. They have had great success measuring IFNt in cell culture media and serum from blood collected from the uterine vein. It was decided that next years meeting will be held May 28  May 29, 2012 in Reno, Nevada. The 2011 W1112 meeting was adjourned at 10:12 a.m

Objective 1. Investigate molecular, cellular, and endocrine mechanisms that limit or control reproductive efficiency in domestic animals. Estrous Cycle, Corpus Luteum Function, and Reproductive Performance 1. Endocrine delivery of roIFNT, whether through UV or JV, effectively protects the CL from luteolytic actions of PGF. Also, concentrations of roIFNT as low as 20 mg/day induced ISGs in the CL and provided protection against a challenge with PGF. 2. AKT, BCL-XL, and XIAP mRNAs are down-regulated within 12h in response to PGF. Endocrin action of IFNT on the CL stabilizes these cell-life genes, which may contribute to luteal resistance to luteolysis during pregnancy. 3. Microarray analysis confirms endocrine action of pregnancy on the corpus luteum in ruminants, which entails differential expressions of ISGs, chemokines, cell adhesion, cytoskeletal, angiogenic and epithelial to mesynchmal transition genes. 4. An additional CIDR treatment for 7d (5  12d post-breeding) increased maternal progesterone concentrations by an average 5.5 ng/ml by 1 wk following the 7d harem period in reindeer. There was no effect of progesterone on gestation length. 5. Genes that are expressed rapidly after PG injection in cattle have been determined to help understand more about CL function and regression. Hopefully this information can be used to understand how we might induce CL regression more efficiency as a method to manipulate estrus cycles in cattle. 6. PGE1 and PGE2 prevent luteolysis in Angus or Brahman cows by altering angiogenic receptors on luteal tissue as well as preventing loss of message for LH receptors and occupied and unoccupied LH receptors and altering mRNA for prostanoid receptors on luteal tissue. Analogues of PGE1 and/or PGE2 may be viable approaches to prevent loss of luteal progesterone in cows and to decrease pregnancy loss during the first trimester of pregnancy. 7. Within a larger cattle herd derived from the Texas AgriLife McGregor Beef Cattle Research Center, sub-herds of heifers were identified as having inferior or superior capacity for fertility based on a 5 day Co-Synch + CIDR + artificial insemination protocol. Gonadal Development and Function 1. Novel mouse lines where either VEGFA isoforms or the co-receptor to VEGFA angiogenic isoforms have been knocked out in specific cells have been generated to delineate the functions and necessity for appropriate balance of VEGFA isoforms in ovarian and testis development. The actions of these VEGFA isoforms appear to have dramatic impact on male and female reproduction if they are not in appropriate balance. a) Loss of all VEGFA isoforms in Sertoli and some germ cells reduces testis and reproductive organ weight and alters morphology and genes necessary for establishing the spermatogonial stem cell niche are altered compromising spermatogenesis. At six months of age the male mice have 50% reduction in sperm in the epididymus suggesting their reproductive lifespan is compromised. b) Loss of NRP-1 in Sertoli cells and deactivation of VEGFA angiogenic isoforms appears to have little effect on organ weights; however morphology of the testis is altered and genes critical for spermatogonial stem cell niche maintenance are dramatically reduced suggesting that too much anti-angiogenic isoform actions are detrimental to reproductive lifespan and male fertility. c) Similarly loss of all VEGFA isoforms in the granulosa cells reduces ovarian weight and at eight months of age the KO mice have reduced numbers of CL and 45% less estrogen suggesting that there are less follicles developing and ovulating. Furthermore, genes involved in follicle development and cell survival are also altered suggesting that follicular development is compromised. d) If the human VEGFA165b isoform is overexpressed in females then there is a reduction in litter size, a reduction in ovarian weight at 30 days of age and reduced number of primordial follicles as well as a tendency for reduced follicle numbers overall in overexpressing mice compared to controls. 2. Injection of VEGFA isoforms during spermatogonial stem cell niche establishment affects colonization in recipient males. Angiogenic VEGFA isoform treatment appears to increased numbers of colonies of stem cells suggesting that it increases proliferation and renewal while anti-angiogenic isoforms inhibit colonizationhowever, the length of the colonies are greater. Thus, we are proposing that pro-angiogenic VEGFA isoforms allow for SSC renewal and proliferation while anti-angiogenic VEGFA isoforms stimulate SSC differentiation. Therefore, VEGFA isoforms may be a mechanism to alter or enhance spermatogenesis in males. 3. We have developed a reproductive longevity X granulosa steroidogenic efficiency model in cattle to determine how both reproductive longevity and granulosa efficiency may affect gene expression in granulosa, theca and cumulus-oocyte complexes as a way to develop markers to select young female to remain in the cattle herd. We have determined that females with lower granulosa steroidogenic efficiency have greater androstenedione in follicular fluid, reduced IGF-1 mRNA and more VEGFA164b in granulosa cells. Furthermore, the increased VEGFA164b also occurs in theca and COC. There is altered gene expression in COC in maternal effect genes and microRNA processing genes suggesting that mRNA stability may be altered which may affect oocyte development and viability. With this model we are elucidating more mechanisms which affect fertility, follicle development and oocyte competence. 4. Spermatogonial stem cells are sensitive to exposure to alcohol during the establishment and expansion of the spermatogonial stem cell population. 5. PGRMC1 is important for maintaining a suitable environment in the Seminiferous tubule for germ cell differentiation through actions in Sertoli and Leydig cells. In addition, PGRMC1 participates in the regulation of steroid hormone production in the testis. 6. Ovulatory follicle size is a good chute side measure of fertility to induced ovulation in beef cows and is indicative of follicle maturity. Increased ovulatory follicle size increases subsequent progesterone production and may actually shorten the lifespan of the resulting CL. 7. Ovulatory follicle size was negatively associated with cumulus cell cathepsin B and Z expression, strengthening their value as indicators of oocyte competence. 8. A demonstrated role of the oocyte/embryo specific protein JY-1 in regulation of cumulus cell progesterone production further supports an important potential requirement of JY-1 for fertility in cattle. 9. Investigation of the role of the CART peptide in regulation of follicular development and specifically dominant follicle selection may ultimately lead to development of new technologies to manipulate the follicular selection process in cattle and potentially enhance efficiency of superovulation. Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary Gland-Gonadal Physiology 1. The sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis to Kiss-10 increases as heifers approach puberty. This appears to be due to estradiol sensitizing the axis to the effects of Kiss-10. 2. Prenatal critical period for androgen dependent differentiation of the oSDN occurs later than, and can be separated temporally form, the period for development of masculine genitals. 3. The recombinant single chain analogs of ovine gonadotropins can be used to induce a superovulatory response in sheep and may have a broader application in ovulation induction protocols. 4. The mouse gonadotrope cell line, alphaT3-1 cells, is not a valid model to study non-classical actions of estradiol via the membrane estrogen receptor. Establishment of Pregnancy 1. Intra-uterine administration of the PGF receptor antagonist (AL-8810) did not affect the number of cows diagnosed pregnant at approximately day 30 post-insemination. 2. Intra-uterine administration of the PGF receptor antagonist (AL-8810) did not affect the incidence of early embryonic loss or subsequent days to next estrus. 3. An intrauterine dose of fluid (0.5 ml) can be administered 5 days after insemination without compromising pregnancies. 4. Plasma membrane estrogen receptors in the ovine endometrium are not a rapidly changing population that reflects the contemporary concentration of nuclear receptor or the radioreceptor assay utilized is too insensitive to detect changes in the levels of the plasma membrane receptors. 5. Increased understanding of regulation and function of the oocyte specific nuclear transport protein KPNA7 may enhance understanding of regulation of the maternal-to-embryonic transition and mechanisms that lead to early embryonic loss and infertility in dairy cattle and reduce efficiency of in vitro embryo production. 6. Addition of heparin binding protein to sexed, frozen, bull semen failed to improve conception or pregnancy rates. Sire is the major variable affecting fertility of sexed, frozen, bull semen. Placental Function and Fetal Development 1. Transcriptional regulation studies have been initiated for PRR15, as have microarrays and pull-down assays. PRR15 is under both positive and negative transcriptional regulation, and it is involved in posttranscriptional regulation through interactions with a variety of nuclear proteins including hnRNPs, and that in its absence tumorigenic pathways are upregulated and integrin-signalling, cell-cycle control, and extracellular matrix interaction pathways are downregulated. We now believe PRR15 is playing a major role in regulating trophoblast differentiation at the time that the conceptus stops its elongation stage and begins apposition with the uterine wall. 2. Continuation to develop the use of lentiviral mediated transgenesis to alter placental function is still ongoing. In a preliminary study, a 63% reduction in the concentration of oPL mRNA was obtained. While this study was successful, further proving the utility of these approaches, the amount of oPL reduction achieved was unsatisfactory. Accordingly, the targeting vectors are being modified in an attempt to obtain a more robust oPL deficiency. Due to the very high concentration of oPL in normal pregnancies, if oPL expression is adequately reduced, resulting in a phenotypic change in pregnancy, it will provide the proof that essentially any gene express in the ruminant placenta can be altered by this approach. 3. Expression of CXCR4 (mRNA and protein) in the endometrium from pregnant ewes is increased from day 15 to day 35 of gestation during attachment of the conceptus and placentation. 4. Expression of mRNA for CXCL12 and CXCR4 is conceptuses increases in a similar pattern during critical times of attachment and placentation in sheep. 5. Gene expression of CXCL12 is increased in peripheral blood cells from sheep during early pregnancy and it is conceivable that detection of CXCL12 in blood could serve as a pregnancy diagnostic tool. 6. During early pregnancy in the mouse, the corticosterone biosynthetic enzyme HSD11B1 is up-regulated in response to the implanting embryo. Implications are that the embryo establishes a glucocorticoid barrier around the embryo that may serve to: 1) modulate maternal immune function; 2) regulate nutrient availability; and 3) regulate trophoblast growth. 7. The murine endometrium harbors a unique population of label retaining cells that display stem cell qualities. Uterine-Placental-Fetal Nutritional Interactions during Pregnancy 1. Continuous undernutrition during twin pregnancies is associated with elevated umbilical artery ghrelin concentrations, and increased ghrelin mRNA concentrations. Elevated fetal ghrelin concentrations may provide a signal to the placenta to provide additional nutrient support to the fetus. 2. No effects of gender on GSIS or b-cell mass were observed. 3. Fetal insulin secretion is less responsive to physiological glucose concentrations in twins compared to singletons due in part to less b-cell mass. 4. Repeats bouts of pulsatile hyperglycemia impairs fetal insulin secretion responsiveness and a dysregulation in islet ROS handling. 5. In IUGR sheep fetuses at 0.7 of gestation, an adrenergic blockade revealed an elevated insulin secretion response to glucose and arginine, but did not affect controls, which is similar to findings in UIGR sheep fetuses at 0.9 of gestation. These findings indicate that hypoxemia via elevated NE cause compensatory insulin secretion responsiveness in IUGR fetuses at 0.7 of gestation prior to appreciable declines in fetal weight. 6. Surgical Ad restored glucose-stimulated insulin secretion during hypoxemia but reduced it during normoxemia. 7. After previously reporting the presence of the ghrelin and GHS-R1A receptor mRNAs in the reproductive tract of cattle, it is now evident that the respective proteins are also present throughout the bovine reproductive tract. Disease, Immune Function 1. Fetuses persistently infected with ncp BVDV early in gestation induce type I IFN pathways, resulting in chronic up-regulation of ISGs due to persistence of the virus. The innate immune response is not able to clear the virus without contribution from the mature adaptive immune response. 2. Chronic exposure to the BVDV virus and IFNs can lead to the long-term consequences of disrupted fetal development and impaired postnatal immune responses. Nutrition and Reproduction 1. We are measuring phenotypic traits to determine how different supplementation affects reproductive function in beef heifers and are not seeing dramatic effects which may suggest that we need to evaluate differences in supplementation during gestation. 2. Low residual feed intake (more efficient) animals have a lower insulin response following a glucose challenge than high residual feed intake (less efficient) animals. 3. More efficient cattle may have a greater population of structural carbohydrate degrading bacteria in the rumen compared to less efficient cattle. 4. Evaluation of residual feed intake as a heifer may not accurately predit their performance as a gestating cow. 5. Following acute weaning it requires 10.7 days on the average for calves to learn to eat enough feed to meet intake requirements for maintenance. 6. Handling and loading of calves resulted in increased body temperatures which returned to normal during transportation. The greatest stressor during transportation is the loading process not the movement during transport. 7. Female offspring born to ewes nutrient restricted (NR) during the first half of gestation exhibited a marked reduction in fertility. This decreased fertility was associated with decreased progesterone concentrations in systemic blood during the estrous cycle of adult ewes born to NR mothers. 8. Corpora lutea recovered from the adult female offspring of the NR ewes exhibited markedly decreased progesterone content during the midluteal phase of an estrous cycle. Exposure to maternal NR from early to mid-gestation, programmed increased oxidative stress, and reduced expression of StAR and P450scc enzymes, considered to be rate-limiting in luteal progesterone synthesis. These data suggest epigenetic modification of gene expression in CL of offspring born to NR mothers, which results in decreased progesterone secretion and pregnancy rates. Behavior and Stress 1. Ram exposure during the transition into the breeding season alters hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity of ewes by permitting an increase in LH pulse frequency which in turn stimulates the ovulatory cascade and accelerates ovulatory activity. The physiological mechanism for this effect is unclear but may be related to relaxation of cortisol inhibition of LH secretion. 2. Immunization against ACTH23-39 or ACTH1-14 in sheep results in the production of antibodies that recognize and bind specific regions of ACTH and prolong, rather than neutralize, the biological effect of the hormone. This targeted immunization procedure presents a novel means of modulating the activity of endogenous ACTH and may be useful in studying the significance of cortisol secretion in the physiological response to stress. 3. Acute stress can stimulate indices normally associated with the pro-inflammatory immune response. Assessing the immunological status of an animal at one time point may not accurately depict an animals overall health as it may reflect a response associated with handling. 4. Temperament is related to the endocrine, behavioral and physiologic responses following an endotoxin challenge. Temperamental animals challenged by an endotoxin utilize nonesterified fatty acids as an energy source while calmer animals utilize glucose. 5. Temperament alters the reaction to a stressor by increasing glucose and insulin concentrations following a glucose challenge. Temperament clearly modifies metabolic regulatory responses to a metabolic challenge. 6. Stimuli that increase circulating cortisol may influence expression of cytokines and modulate or prime the immune system prior to a subsequent immune challenge. 7. Temperament of calves is moderately to highly heritable. Selection for temperament can effectively alter the temperament of a herd or a breed. This research has resulted in the American Brahman Breeders Association adopting the use of pen score to develop a docility EPD. Objective 2. Develop and improve reproductive technologies to enhance sustainability of production systems for domestic ruminants. Estrus, Hormones, Estrous Synchronizations and Artificial Insemination 1. Efficacy of commercial CIDR-g in reindeer was tested. Plasma progesterone concentrations were 2 to 3-fold greater with modified CIDR-b than CIDR-g. Use of commercial CIDR-g in reindeer would simplify estrous synchronization protocols making the technique practical for producers. 2. Modification of an estrous synchronization protocol was tested in reindeer in an effort to reduce the number of handlings and animal stress. The protocol used frozen-thawed semen, but tests are required to determine if the calves born using this protocol were sired by the AI sire or by the natural service sire. Disease, Immune Function 1. Management practices and timing of vaccinations should be evaluated on a herd-by-herd basis. Calves in these herds may be vulnerable to future challenge from BRD viruses unless re-vaccinated. Vaccination at inappropriate times is costly and may provide a false sense of security to producers. Behavior and Stress 1. Expression of proceptive behavior in ewes may be important to ensure pregnancy when sexual interest in the ram may be lower. 2. Expression of sexual behavior in rams with large and extensive lesions in the POA was largely unaffected. More restricted lesions, limited to area near the SDN-POA, had more influence on the expression of sexual behavior. Although conclusions cannot be made in this limited sample size, expression of normal sexual behavior may be dependent on an intact SDN-POA. Pregnancy 1. Pregnancy rate in bison determined by fall ultrasonography accurately predicts of calf production at the following roundup. Reproductive loss during gestation occurs in these bison but not at a higher rate than would be expected in cattle and does not appear to be a major factor in determining overall reproductive rate of bison. Examination of the relationship between cow BW, cows that exhibited luteal activity and the dramatic decrease in calf production from 2000 to 2007 one can infer that the number of cows that were anestrus increased, resulting in a decreased in the proportion of cows bred during breeding season and a decrease in the proportion of cows pregnant at roundup. Additionally, normal losses during gestation exacerbated the decrease in calf production. From the historical trends, it would appear that the cause of anestrus during the breeding season is the result of body condition of cows at the NBR, most likely due to range resources or other environmental factors. 2. Pregnancy rates in Rambouillet ewes were improved by administering 10 mg of PGF at CIDR removal during a fall breeding season. 3. Administering 5 or 10 mg of dexamethasone to ewes before breeding had no adverse effect on pregnancy rates and the 5-mg dosage may have actually been beneficial. 4. Use of a CIDR in combination with 500 IU PMSG effectively induced out-of-season cyclicity at 30 days postpartum in lactating anestrous Rambouillet ewes. Markers for Reproductive Health 1. An effect of FSH beta subunit promoter sequence on semen morphology (proximal droplets) was observed suggesting that polymorphisms in the promoter regions of this gene may have an effect on semen quality in Brahman influenced bulls and cows. Additional studies are needed to confirm this finding. 2. No polymorphisms were observed in the FSH beta subunit promoter region of Balancer and Angus bulls in contrast to the variability observed in Brahmans influenced bulls and in Brahman influenced cows. Development of Tools 1. A software implementation of a statistical model for small-sample gene expression studies (affyNFM) was validated and published. This was motivated by a small-sample bovine SCNT (clone cotyledons) study and led to meaningful biological conclusions regarding embryonic gene expression in SCNT pregnancies. 2. Generalized linear models were adapted for complicated experimental designs for next-generation sequencing data, with particular application to understanding the molecular mechanisms governing embryo viability and survival in order to improve the efficiency of assisted reproductive technologies for livestock. 3. A software implementation was developed to reduce (from two weeks to just a few minutes) the data analysis time for high-throughput genotyping. This genotyping is allowing an efficient assessment of how cloned embryos may be lost because of an immune response mounted by the maternal immune system due to improper expression of certain proteins on some of the fetal cells in the placenta. This assessment will help make the cloning process much more efficient and affordable.

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