Brief Summary of Minutes of Annual Meeting

Goal A: Import and Establish Effective Natural Enemies Objective 1. Survey indigenous natural enemies. Surveys for natural enemies of arthropod and weed pests were conducted either in the native home of the pest or within the country of invasion. Several of these surveys are highlighted. Eight surveys of more than 45 sites indicated that olive psyllid is well established in parts of Orange and San Diego Counties. Natural enemies were rarely observed within psyllid clusters. An Orius-like predator was found feeding on the psyllids collected for lab. purposes. Adults and larvae lacewings were collected in California's central valley and coastal region. Specimens from several populations were reared and preserved for morphological study; additional specimens were sent to colleagues for analysis of courtship songs. Surveys were conducted for aquatic insects feeding on Brazilian waterweed in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, and for the presence of eriophyid mites on Salsola species in California. Assassin bugs, (Reduviidae), were surveyed in Southern California with an emphasis on the genera Zelus and Apiomerus. Species of Zelus are native to California and feed on prey such as lygus, caterpillar larvae, and boll weevils. Objective 2. Conduct foreign exploration and ecological studies in native range of pest. Several institutions in the western US conducted foreign exploration and importation of natural enemies for both new and established arthropod and weed pests this past year. Work included looking for biocontrol agents for the following species: olive psylla in Spain and France; European lettuce aphid in Spain; Russian olive and Russian knapweed in Turkey, Central Asia and Iran; Brazilian waterweed in South America; yellow starthistle in Turkey; Russian and scotch thistle, perennial pepperweed, and rush skeletonweed in Italy, Spain, Bulgaria and Turkey; French broom in France and Italy; and white peach scale in Samoa. In most cases, arthropods were sought as natural enemies, however plants diseases and, in one case, a nematode, was identified as a potential biocontrol agent (caused visible blisters and deformations on scotch thistle leaves). Many of these exploratory trips are only partially successful. Species sent to quarantine facilities must survive the trip and reproduce. Subsequent cultures will then be used for non-target host testing and evaluation for potential release. (See Objective No. 4). Objective 3. Determine systematics and biogeography of pests and natural enemies. Systematics studies generate both molecular and morphological data that are essential to distinguishing between biotypes of both pests and natural enemies. These data also provide information about species biogeography, which ultimately helps select the best biological control species. Comparative work continued on the Chrysopidae of the USA and New World. Long-term priorities are on genera that have potential importance to biological control (e.g., Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, Ceraeochrysa, Chrysopodes, Leucochrysa). Multilocus genotypic variation was determined within and between populations of water primrose-willow species using molecular markers developed from 944 plants sampled among 32 populations and 5 watersheds. Studies on the phylogenetic relationships of Reduviid genera using molecular and morphological information are in progress. The systematics of the Asian Citrus Psyllid, Diaphorina, is largely unknown and investigations focus on a molecular study based on broad sampling of Diaphorina species in South East Asia, the Near East, and South Africa. Population genetic studies are ongoing for beetle species that feed on Russian and scotch thistle. Genetic and morphological studies have been carried out with different ecotypes of the root boring weevil Trichosirocalus spp. and Lixus cardui. A long-term study on the systematics of the Delphacidae was completed. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers were used to confirm systematic identity and to examine genetic divergence among invasive populations of the gall wasp Q. erythrinae from Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, and China. Samples from all invasive populations showed a complete lack of genetic diversity. Molecular findings confirm that a single species is involved in the dramatic, recent range expansion and that introductions may have been associated with population bottlenecks that have reduced genetic diversity in populations sampled. Cales noacki is an imported parasitoid of the Wooly Whitefly on citrus and the Red-Banded Whitefly on avocado. A previously unknown cryptic species has been identified using molecular markers which is highly localized in a citrus grove on the UC-Riverside campus. Objective 4. Determine environmental safety of exotic candidates prior to release. Many non-target studies are underway. Examples follow. Host specificity testing for Haeckliana sperata (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), an egg parasitoid of Diaprepes is ongoing. Initial trials have found this parasitoid to only attack Diaprepes eggs. The rust Cercospora sp. was evaluated and found to not be sufficiently specific to use as a biological control agent for Cape-ivy (Delairea odorata). The mite, Aceria drabae, was collected in Turkey and shipped to Montana for testing against hoarycress. The mite appears to be very host specific and a TAG petition is being drafted for its field release. Non-target host testing is ongoing for enemies against the following weeds: Hawkweed, Russian and scotch thistle, perennial pepperweed, rush skeletonweed, yellow starthistle and saltcedar. The African braconid parasitoid Fopius ceratitivorus was shown to be an inferior intrinsic competitor to the common extant Asian species F. arisanus on young eggs of their common host medflies, so there is little risk of competitive displacement by the new parasitoid. The spiny soldier bug (P. maculiventris) is being tested against a number of species in Guam. It may prove useful against a range of coleopteran and lepidopteran pests of cabbage, but due to its generalist nature may pose a threat to biocontrol agents previously released on Guam, and to threatened butterfly species on Guam, including the nymphalid Hypolimnas octocula which is a candidate for the US Endangered Species List. Objective 5. Release, establish and redistribute natural enemies. Many releases and redistributions of natural enemies were carried out against pests in 2010. Pest species include (but were not limited to): giant reed, rush skeletonweed, Mediterranean sage, purple loosestrife, olive fly, Diaprepes root weevil, Lygus hesperus, vine mealybug, Asian citrus psyllid, tansy ragwort, Russian knapweed, field bindweed, St. Johnswort, Bemisa spp., melon aphid, saltcedar, leafy spurge, yellow starthistle, musk thistle, spotted and diffuse knapweed, Dalmation toadflax, common mullein, poison hemlock, Canada thistle, tansy ragwort, scotchbroom, and giant sensitive weed. Most of these projects required collecting or rearing the natural enemies and releasing them at many sites, followed by evaluating their establishment. Objective 6. Evaluate natural enemy efficacy and study ecological/physiological basis for interactions. California studies continued on yellow Starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis and Dalmation Toadflax. A specific effort is being made to document the effect that natural enemies have made on reductions in toadflax, and what effect those reductions may have on the abundance of native wildflowers that are of major importance. No remarkable impact has been documented to date. The introduced saltcedar leafbeetle (Diorhabda elongata) has killed nearly 75% of saltcedar at sites in Nevada and achieved over 90% control across a wide area (100,000s of acres) in Utah. Efficacy of the fly, Hydrellia sp., to reduce biomass of Brazilian waterweed (Egeria densa) was further characterized in Argentina. A quarantine laboratory study compared the life history parameters of the psyllid, Arytinnis hakani, on French broom (Genista monspessulana) plants from the native and invasive regions of origin. Field experiments on the interaction of two biological control agents of yellow starthistle showed that a rust pathogen (Puccinia jaceae var. solstitialis) benefited adult weevils but reduced the impact of weevil larvae. The seedhead fly, Chaetorellia succinea, often emerges in the spring much earlier than the target weed, yellow starthistle, which reduces efficacy of the fly. Research showed that this asynchrony was caused by differences in spring temperature, which vary as a function of topography. Parasitism of the cereal leaf beetle by T. julius in experimental field plots of wheat was increased by spraying with sucrose early in the season when the beetle larvae were first hatching. Binodoxys communis was found to be responsible for low levels of aphid parasitism at three release sites on Kauai. High levels of hyperparasitism and competition with extant primary parasitoids are partially responsible for the low efficacy. In field evaluations of the African predator Eurytoma erythrinae (imported to control the Erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae), all release sites in natural areas showed a significant reduction in gall infestation levels on leaves, petioles, stems, inflorescences and seedpods compared to pre-release infestation levels. Ongoing surveys are periodically conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Rhyzobius lophanthae, a coccinellid, on controlling populations of the Asian cycad scale, Aulocaspis yasumatsui on Cycas micronesica on Guam. Studies have also been conducted to evaluate predations rates of R. lophanthae at different heights above ground in an attempt to understand why there is little apparent recruitment of C. micronesica seedlings into the forest population of trees. Goal B: Conserve Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control of Target Pests. Objective 7. Characterize and identify pest and natural enemy communities and their interactions. Naturally occurring egg parasitism of the light brown apple moth in California was assessed at several coastal sites using sentinel egg cards. Four species of egg parasites have been found. This is the first record of T. fasciatum occurring in the United States. Breeding success of females in natural populations was compared for two prominent species of ladybird beetles inhabiting Utah alfalfa fields, the introduced Coccinella septempunctata L. and the indigenous C. transversoguttata richardsoni Brown. Females of the introduced species were more successful in producing eggs than were females of the indigenous species, and produced these eggs on average earlier in the spring. Field-based life table studies in Arizona cotton are being conducted to examine the comparative role of natural enemies and plant stress on Bemisia tabaci population dynamics. Results to date demonstrate a key role for arthropod predators and a minor role for plant stress. Insect-specific PCR assays have been developed that detect predation events on key members of the cotton, alfalfa, and lesquerella arthropod assemblages that include pests (whitefly, lygus) and natural enemies (collops, big-eyed bug, etc.). These assays are being used to simultaneously probe the guts of individual predators for the presence of all types of prey. These data will help to unveil the complex feeding interactions exhibited by the generalist predator complex. Evaluations have continued on the influence of food deprivation during larval development on native lady beetle species that commonly feed on small grain aphids in Kansas. Recent studies showed that increasing the level of food deprivation on Coleomegilla maculata resulted in correspondingly longer developmental times, shorter preoviposition periods, and smaller-sized adult females. Also, different-sized beetles exhibited dissimilar expressions of reproductive output, suggesting possible reproductive trade-offs related to size. Objective 8. Identify and assess factors potentially disruptive to biological control. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for whitefly control. Results confirmed the selectivity of spirotetramat, rynaxypyr and cyazypyr for whitefly; natural enemies were largely unaffected. A study was initiated to examine a novel protein prey marking method that can be used to differentiate active predation from scavenging events on whitefly by various members of the cotton predator assemblage. Living and dead (cadaver) cohorts of whiteflies were each marked with a unique protein and then fed to various members of the cotton predator community. In turn, the gut contents of each predator was probed by protein-specific ELISAs to differentiate between active and carrion predation events. Ultimately this method will be used to identify the propensity that generalist predators have for feeding on living versus dead prey items. Field studies were continued to study the selectivity of several new insecticides for Lygus bug control in cotton. The selectivity of flonicamid and metaflumizone for Lygus bugs were confirmed; natural enemies were largely unaffected. Glassy winged sharpshooter (GWSS)-specific ELISA and PCR assays have been developed that detect predation events on the various life stages of GWSS. These assays are being used to probe the guts of individual predators of GWSS collected over a two year period from a citrus field that was exposed to three different irrigation regimes. These data will help to unveil the complex feeding interactions exhibited by the generalist predator complex on GWSS exposed to normal (100%) and deficit (60 and 80%) irrigation treatments. In a lab study, aphids previously parasitized by the Cecidomyid, Endaphis fugitiva were exposed to increased mortality risks. Both simulated and actual predator attacks against aphid hosts induced early emergence of the parasitoid larvae, allowing enough time for the larvae to avoid direct predation. Predator-induced emergence produced significantly smaller parasitoid larvae than controls, but no effect on Endaphis adult size was found. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence of induced emergence ("heterokairy") in an insect parasitoid. Objective 9. Implement and evaluate habitat modification, horticultural practices, and pest suppression tactics to conserve natural enemy activity. To further reduce reliance on pyrethroids in late-season peaches, enhancement of biological control of the Oriental Fruit Moth (OFM) was initiated through habitat management by plantings of sunflowers along IPM blocks to provide overwintering and breeding habitat for a biological control agent. OFM was effectively controlled in both mating-disruption demonstration blocks and in conventionally treated blocks, demonstrating successful on-farm efficacy of mating disruption as a reduced risk alternative to organophosphates and pyrethroids. No differences in OFM populations were detected in IPM blocks with and without sunflower during the second year of the demonstration, primarily because OFM populations were low in all IPM blocks. Preliminary field studies in 2009 assessed the efficacy of methyl salicylate (MeSA - Pred-Alure) as an attractant for natural enemies in cotton. MeSA failed to attract predators at a dose of 225 lures/ha compared with un-baited control plots. Headspace volatile collections indicated lure output for ca. 60 days. Studies in 2010 used higher lure doses and placed control and baited plots adjacent to a large alfalfa field to determine proof of concept. Goal C: Augment Natural Enemies to Increase Biological Control Efficacy. Objective 10. Assess biological characteristics of natural enemies. Research on Reduviids is focusing on natural history data (reproduction, predation), comparative morphological evaluation of raptorial glands in Zelus spp., and functional and comparative morphology of predation and maternal care in Apiomerus. Research continued towards the long-term goal of finding more efficient and effective ways to use the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, as an augmentative biological control agent of the twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae, on greenhouse vegetable and floricultural crops. Because this predator is tiny, flightless, and must forage in diverse complex crop landscapes in which prey are patchily-distributed, testing has focused on lines artificially selected to enhance various foraging traits, including consumption rate and tendency for dispersal. In 2010 we evaluated the high-consumption and high-dispersal lines of P. persimilis against our colony (unselected control) on whole 6-leafed cucumber plants in which twospotted spider mites were distributed on only the basal leaf or on all six leaves. Results showed that predators from the high-consumption line consumed more prey on the basal leaf on which they were placed than on the other five leaves; whereas high-dispersal predators foraged more uniformly, consuming equal prey on the basal and upper 5 leaves. Objective 11. Develop procedures for rearing, storing, quality control and release of natural enemies, and conduct experimental releases to assess feasibility. Rearing procedures are being developed and refined for Light Brown Apple Moth, Epiphyas postvittana. Extant species of Trichogramma egg parasitoids are under evaluation to determine their effectiveness in augmentation biological control of the light brown apple moth. Interest focuses on the combined effects of egg parasitoids and sterile insect technology (SIT) using sterile light brown apple moths. Research in large field cages (12' x 24') was initiated in late summer of 2010. Results were favorable for both parasitism (using T. platneri) and SIT. Mass rearing methodology for Jaapiella ivannikova is being developed in the New Mexico State University High Containment Insect Facility. Techniques for field releases will be developed in 2011including the number of galls in the initial release, cage requirements to prevent dispersal, control of predators etc. Rearing methods have been further developed for rearing and aerial release of the arundo wasp. Objective 12. Implement augmentation programs and evaluate efficacy of natural enemies. Results have been reported under other objectives. Goal D: Evaluate Environmental and Economic Impacts and Raise Public Awareness of Biological Control. Objective 13. Evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of biological control agents. Long-term censusing of lady beetle species assemblages occurring in alfalfa fields of Utah was continued to evaluate effects of the introduction and establishment of the exotic lady beetle, Coccinella septempunctata, on native coccinellids. Sampling was completed to evaluate the impact of the introductions of Rodolia spp. predators to the Manu'a Islands to control the exotic Seychelles scale, Icerya seychellarum. Heavy outbreaks of Seychelles scale on breadfruit and other trees had occurred in the Manu'a Islands (Ofu, Olosega, and Ta'u) since the mid-1990s, when it was accidentally introduced, apparently from populations long established on Tutuila Island. In response, Rodolia limbata from Australia was introduced to Ofu Island in 1999. After rearing in the laboratory and screening for diseases and parasitoids, beetles from this Tutuila population were introduced to Ta'u Island in 2008. In 2010, another evaluation was completed which showed that R. pumila had spread throughout Ta'u Island and that I. seychellarum densities were now reduced to very low levels on Ta'u. Residents remarked that breadfruit tree leaves which had for years been covered by masses of white wax-covered scale insects on the undersides and heavy black sooty mold on the upper sides were now a healthy green color and size and quantity of fruit production had also rebounded. Objective 14. Develop and implement outreach activities for biological control programs. Outreach on IPM and biological control in canning peach orchards was made through on-farm training, informal meetings, seminars, and field days. Eleven seminars or presentations on the biology, damage, and biological control of Diaprepes root weevil, Asian citrus psyllid, and vine mealybug were given to various grower, industry, and scientific groups. A training course on pest control, including biological control, was offered to county staff. The course was designed to prepare trainees for an exam required by commissioners in order to be promoted. The course was offered in Riverside and Sacramento and included four speakers. Two presentations were given to two different organizations consisting of state weed managers on the ongoing biological program for Russian knapweed using J. ivannikovi in Wyoming. Two informational meetings were conducted in New Mexico counties currently benefiting from Diorhabda biocontrol for saltcedar. Outreach activities were conducted with medical students at the Univ. of Texas, San Antonio and Harlingen Health Science Center. Students taking a summer border environmental studies course attended lectures on the biological control program for Arundo donax in the Rio Grande Basin. In March 2010, approximately 30 quarantine personnel on Guam, the CNMI, the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were trained in the importance of natural enemies in regulating populations of invasive insect pests in Micronesia, with special recognition of the potential impact of Hemiptera and ants if not intercepted or detected at or shortly after introduction to the islands. Regulations for importing natural enemies and prohibiting the entry of potential pests were discussed, along with methods for inspection and enforcement of regulations.