PROJECT NUMBER: S-291 (DC 98-03/S-261)

TITLE:	Systems for Controlling Air Pollutant Emissions and Indoor Environments of Poultry, Swine, and Dairy Facilities

DURATION:	October 1, 1999 - September 30, 2004

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Intensive production of poultry and livestock has been facilitated by advances in environmental control technologies, particularly during climatic extremes. However, the intensity of animal production and competitive economic factors have sometimes resulted in poor indoor air quality and emission of air pollutants such as odorous gases, global atmospheric constituents (e.g., methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrous oxide), bacteria, endotoxin, and organic dust into the outdoor environment. The ventilation systems which have promoted animal productivity are a major source of such emissions. In general, air quality control and emission control systems suitable for industrial sources appear to be uneconomical for agricultural animal production. However, numerous approaches to controlling indoor air quality and air pollutant emissions have been developed which can evidently be incorporated into existing production schemes without prohibitive costs or resource requirements. Animal dietary modifications, indoor air cleaning, manure pit ventilation, manure/litter treatments, and improved indoor airflow control can benefit indoor air quality. Exhaust airflow filters, dispersion devices such as stacks and windbreaks, and indoor air cleaning methods can directly reduce air pollutant emissions. In order to address the widespread and growing concerns regarding animal facility air quality and emissions, a multi- disciplinary approach involving collaborative efforts of scientists and engineers is needed. Quantification of beneficial effects of nutritional, manure management, air cleaning, and ventilation approaches, which can best be accomplished by professionals familiar with the methods and issues, will facilitate development of cost-effective solutions.

JUSTIFICATION:

Poultry and livestock production in the U.S. represent major, growing sources of income. For example, 81% of the 7.6 billion broilers, 45% of the 301 million turkeys, and 64% of the 102 million hogs marketed in the U.S. in 1996 were raised in the states participating in this project. The increases in production intensity which have enabled the expansion of poultry and livestock production to such high levels have also magnified the influence of the indoor environments on the productivity and well-being of the animals, health of facility workers, air pollution emissions and effects on neighboring communities, and energy and resource use on the farm. Despite development of many promising technologies for quantifying and improving indoor environments and emissions, continued devotion to cost minimization and avoidance of air pollution regulations by producers have prevented widespread adoption of these technologies. However, the explosive growth of animal production in some areas and increased migration of urban residents to rural communities have brought increased conflicts between animal farmers and concerned citizens resulting in numerous lawsuits, moratoria on expansion of intensive swine farms, odor control regulations, and intensive public debates. Although much current dissatisfaction is driven by concerns about odors, water quality concerns have also focused attention on nitrogen deposition and ammonia emissions, for which animal buildings are evidently a major source. In addition, scientists are continuing to gather and publish evidence that indoor environments are adversely affecting the health of workers and neighbors of poultry and livestock farms. Thus, many of the impediments to adoption of technologies for improving indoor air quality and reducing air pollution emissions are likely to change substantially in the next five years. As pressures to reduce air pollution increase while consumer demand for safe food at minimal cost continues, economic pressures to minimize cost will continue to affect adoption of new methods. Climatic constraints on food animal production in the U.S., especially warm, humid conditions which require substantial ventilation and removal of heat and moisture produced by the animals, will continue. Although air pollution and worker health concerns are expected to be major forces affecting animal systems in the near future, animal welfare concerns have also affected public perception of animal producers. Failure to consider animal well-being in development and refinement of production systems could further erode public confidence and eventually result in additional constraints on production methods. A cooperative project involving engineers and scientists in intensive animal production regions will facilitate timely development and adoption of technologies and systems to meet the increased need for reducing air pollution emissions and adverse impacts of indoor environments on worker health, while sustaining animal productivity and well-being. Researchers cooperating in this project are focusing on poultry, swine, and/or dairy due to their regional economic importance.

RELATED CURRENT AND PREVIOUS WORK:

An online search of the CRIS database shows two regional projects, S-261 and S-275, that address topics related to work planned in this proposal. Project S-261 terminates in 1999. This project involves 10 states and USDA-ARS, and emphasizes interior environment and energy use in livestock facilities. The major emphasis of Project S-275 is waste management topics. However, one objective addresses airborne emissions from animal production systems. This project is scheduled to terminate in 2001. It involves 19 states, including eight of the ten currently participating in Project S-261, and USDA-ARS. A search using animal & housing & dust revealed 39 current and completed projects, ten of which indicated an association with regional projects. Six of these were associated with S-261 and S-236. A search using animal & housing & emissions revealed eleven projects, including three from the previous search for dust-
related projects. Five of these were associated with regional projects. A similar CRIS search using animal & housing & energy found 47 projects, 29 of which were from states participating in this proposed. Similar searches using odor and pollution respectively as the third search word found 14 and 17 projects respectively, with considerable duplication. Two thirds of these projects were from states participating in this proposal. A search using animal & housing & environment & and control resulted in 62 projects. Thirty-nine of these involved states participating in this proposal. The various searches noted considerable overlap, with many projects covering two or more of the search criteria used.

This brief summary shows that considerable research is being concentrated on the various factors related to animal housing environment, emissions and controls. This is clearly a topic of interest to agricultural researchers, the public, and many state and local government agencies. Project S- 261 has addressed several of these issues, but much remains to be done. Current participants in S-261 plus the additional states participating in this proposal constitute a significant proportion of those with research programs in this area. The remaining projects, other than ARS projects, are scattered in states from Puerto Rico to South Dakota and Delaware to Arizona.

Environmental Quality in Animal Facilities

Environmental quality involves many interacting factors. Two factors that have received major research emphasis are air quality and thermal effects. Steps to improve one factor may negatively affect the other as well as affecting building emissions and total production costs. Thus, there will be considerable overlap between research noted in this section and that applicable to subsequent sections of this literature review.

SRDC 93-03 (the proposal developed for Regional Project S-261) included extensive coverage of research related to animal production and interior thermal environments. This review will emphasize work reported since that time and related work not included in that proposal. Another extensive source of recent data regarding livestock environment is the proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Livestock Environment (Bottcher and Hoff, 1997).

Several researchers have studied the effect of thermal environment, and modifications to that environment upon poultry production. Bottcher et al. (1995a, 1995b, 1998) continued previous studies involving fan ventilation of poultry facilities. They developed large paddle fans that were found to be effective for summer use in turkey and broiler houses. They also tested propeller fans directed to blow downward and mixing fans used for air circulation. Proper adjustment and operation of the propeller and mixing fans were found to be important for effective use. Simmons et al. (1997) analyzed heat loss from broiler chickens at various air speeds in tunnel ventilation. They found little change in total heat loss at air velocities between 61 and 183 m/min, although sensible heat loss increased and latent heat decreased. DeBey et al. (1994) evaluated two natural ventilation designs for turkey production facilities. While they found differences in ammonia and dust concentrations, no performance differences were detected.

The effect of evaporative cooling has been studied using a number of different application techniques. Most research activities have concentrated upon poultry and dairy facilities, with only limited swine-related work. Bridges et al. (1992) used a simulation model to estimate the effect of misting on growing-finishing swine. Results indicated a strong economic advantage for misting. Researchers in Kansas effectively reduced heat stress of sows by dripping water using horticultural emitters (Murphy et al., 1987). Bottcher et al. (1992) found fogging fan systems to be effective in lowering temperatures in experimental and commercial poultry buildings. Singletary et al. (1996) studied misting evaporative efficiency in a test chamber and in an experimental poultry building. Simmons and Lott (1996) found that the performance of evaporative pad cooling systems improved with lower cooling water temperatures. In a later (1997a) study, they proposed a computer-controlled variable rate fogging system for broiler houses to improve fogging effectiveness. Xin et al. (1994) examined temperature and humidity variations inside conventional (with misting) and tunnel ventilated (with evaporative pads) houses for summer and winter conditions. They found the tunnel ventilation system produce lower daytime summer temperatures and less diurnal variation that the conventional house. Studies of the effectiveness of evaporative cooling continue, usually as part of more comprehensive projects (CRIS Proj. Nos. ARK01602, NYC-123539; ARS Proj. No. 6406- 32630-001-01S)

Several evaporative cooling studies in Arizona demonstrated benefits to dairy cattle in hot, arid climates (Armstrong et al., 1993; Chen et al., 1993, 1997). Means et al. (1992) and Turner et al. (1992) found that sprinkler and fan systems could be effective in reducing heat stress in humid climates. Ryan, et al. (1992) compared spray and fan cooling to circulating air precooled by evaporative cooling in an arid climate. They found that the precooled evaporative air was significantly more effective than spray and fan under the conditions tested. Turner et al. (1991) conducted on-farm demonstrations to show the effectiveness of evaporative cooling for dairy cows. Lin et al. (1997) found a sprinkler fan system superior to a misting fan treatment in dairy free-stall housing. However, in a later study (Lin et al., 1998) they found that, with proper application, misters were equally effective and used only 10 percent of the water required for sprinkler systems. Montoya et al. (1995) analyzed fan sprinkler system to determine the most effective application rates. Gates et al. (1991) proposed a method to analyze operation of misting systems for livestock housing based upon the interior THI. Based upon their analysis, they found the misting system to compare favorably with evaporative pad cooling.

Air quality studies have emphasized toxic gases, especially ammonia, and dust levels inside animal confinement facilities. Most poultry studies have concentrated on ammonia levels while swine studies have considered dust, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. Recently a comprehensive study to quantify concentrations and emissions of air pollutants from livestock buildings in Northern Europe was conducted by researchers from the U.K., Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark, which resulted in considerable data as well as robust methods which will be used by researchers in this project (Phillips et al., 1998).

Adverse effects of indoor air pollutants on human health have been documented by many researchers. Epidemiologic studies of swine facility workers have shown their most common respiratory symptoms to be increased coughing and phlegm production, which are dust-related and characterize bronchitis; tightness of chest, wheezing, organic dust toxic syndrome, and reductions in pulmonary function have also been documented (Donham, 1990; Donham et al., 1990; Leonard and Donham, 1990; Zhang et al., 1997). Results for poultry workers are similar. Lenhart et al. (1990) documented exposure of poultry facility workers to dust, ammonia, and endotoxin and gave examples of excursions from recommended exposure limits. Morris et al. (1991) studied 59 chicken catchers and found higher rates for chronic phlegm and wheezing than non-exposed blue collar workers, as well as reductions in pulmonary function, and noted similar results of others. Whyte et al. (1993) found reductions in lung function in 10% of full-time poultry stockmen in the U.K. In general, chronic effects such as reduced lung function and bronchitis are greatest among animal facility workers who have spent several years working in animal facilities.

In addition to the effects of inhalable and respirable particulates on health, organic dust in animal buildings is especially problematic since the protein in dust can react with human tissue and the dust includes gram negative bacteria, endotoxin, fungi, and adsorbed ammonia (Donham et al., 1986; Leonard and Donham, 1990). Some constituents such as animal dander, feed, and feathers can cause allergic responses (Levy, 1982). Since the air inside animal buildings typically contains so many air pollutants, it can be difficult to ascribe respiratory effects to a single agent and combinations of these pollutants may have an additive effect on human health (Donham et al., 1986), or synergistic effects such that recommended and permissible exposure limits for organic dust and ammonia in animal facilities should be lowered (Donham and Cumro, 1999). Several researchers have evaluated ventilation and other methods for air quality control. Xin et al. (1996) evaluated the ventilation requirements for ammonia removal in commercial-scale broiler houses. They found that reuse of old litter contributed greatly to ammonia production during the brooding period. Brewer and Costello (1999) verified this experimentally by measuring ammonia flux rates, in-situ, in a broiler house.

In swine facilities, Aarnink and Wagemans (1997) found that air inlet and exit positions significantly affected the ammonia and dust concentrations at pig level. Specifically, they found that low air inlets and exits reduced ammonia and dust concentrations at pig level when compared to high inlets and outlets. Maghirang et al. (1997) measured dust concentration and particle size distribution in a swine nursery. They found significant variation in dust levels, particle size distribution, and carbon dioxide concentration with time. They also found total dust concentration to be significantly higher over pens than over the service alley. Pickrell et al. (1993) found significant spatial variation in the concentration of airborne endotoxin within individual swine rooms and pens.

Successful dust reduction techniques were reviewed by Zhang (1999); one of the most promising is the application of canola oil (Zhang et al., 1996). Hoff et al. (1998) summarized several strategies for reducing odors inside livestock buildings and in the building exhaust. Keener et al. (1999) studied the use of ozone to improve air quality within swine finishing houses. They found that the ozonated house had significantly less ammonia and total dust than the control house. Results of odor tests were inconclusive, possibly due to inaccurate measurement of dust-borne odors, which helped form the basis for the odor measurement investigations planned in this project. Gerrish et al. (1999) reported plans for an extensive study of ozonation as an odor reduction technique for liquid manure. Several states have continuing projects examining air quality, especially ammonia and dust levels, in animal confinement facilities (CRIS Proj. Nos. ARK01602, ILLU-10-0340, IND046066, NC00261, TEN00095, VA-136141 and others).

Several researchers have addressed reduction of emissions from manure slurries in swine building pits. Patni and Clarke (1991) found that mixing of slurry in under-floor pits could produce increased levels of gases, including hazardous levels of hydrogen sulfide. McKinney and Wilhelm (1998) observed similar results during draining and flushing of under-floor pits. Researchers in IA (Bundy and Hoff, 1998) and NC (Schiffman and Williams, 1999) have evaluated manure pit additives for effects on odor emissions; although some promising results in laboratory settings were obtained for some products, results in field trials did not indicate substantial odor control effects. Bundy and Hoff (1998) noted that, since the surface of the manure liquid is only a portion of the indoor surfaces emitting pollutants, field tests of pit additives are not expected to show as much effect as laboratory evaluations. Meyer (1998) also tested the use of additives in deep pits of swine production facilities to reduce ammonia during cold weather. Measured ammonia levels ranged from 0 to 43 ppm, with an average of 16 ppm. Some additives appeared to reduce ammonia and/or odor under specific conditions.

Emissions from Animal Facilities

Livestock buildings and animal manures generate pollutant forms that include ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methane, nitrous oxide, dust, and microorganisms. Gases are emitted from fresh and stored excreta, from the animal feed, and from the animals themselves. These aerial pollutants cause concern because of their implications in animal and human health, global warming, and forest die-back. Aerial transport of pathogens, dust and gases has implications both within the workplace and downwind of the livestock facility. Researchers are investigating methods of reducing emission of aerial pollutants through nutritional and management strategies while also providing for animal and human health and welfare and controlling environmental impacts. Quantification of these emissions is also an important aspect in the overall pollutant control scheme. Measurement of gaseous, odorous, particulate, and bioaerosol pollutants, as well as development of improved methods of predicting downwind transport (dispersion) of the air pollutants, are being pursued by many researchers.

Methane

Methane is implicated as a contributor to global warming and potential greenhouse effects. While estimates of the relative contribution from varying sectors to total, rising methane concentrations vary, it is clear that production agriculture is an important source of methane. Within a livestock system substantial emission of methane results from the ruminant digestive system, manure fermentation (both during storage and after land application), and silage fermentation.

Johnson et al. (1992) estimates that 16.4% of annual methane emissions, which translates to approximately 2.9% of the estimated contribution of all greenhouse gases to global warming, arises from animals, primarily ruminants, and animal manures. Jarvis et al. (1995) determined that <0.2% of total methane production from a dairy farm resulted from excreta during grazing periods, suggesting that manure 'storage' and eructation (belching) are the primary sources in addition to feed fermentation. Research to evaluate methods to reduce methane emissions from cattle is currently underway. Dietary manipulation of livestock feeding is one method researched. Agricultural Research Service researchers in Georgia and Texas have studied forage quality effects on methane production as well as the effects of protein and mineral supplementation on methane emission (CRIS Proj. No. 6612-13610-001-01S). Preliminary data suggests that a combination of dietary protein optimization with ionophore feeding did demonstrate emission benefits in grazing cattle. Researchers at the University of Georgia have also identified control of methane emissions from grazing cattle via forage selection as one of their research priorities (CRIS Proj No. GEO00796).

Quantification of methane emissions from manure storage facilities by using flux gradients and infrared analysis is currently a research project in Georgia (CRIS Proj. No. 6612-13610-001- 02R). Emission concentrations will be quantified as a function of season, climatic conditions, and storage conditions.

Dust

Organic dusts are comprised of grain and plant-derived particles, animal hair, urine, feces, microorganisms, and other particles (Takai et al., 1998). Dust particles may carry pollutants such as odorants, bacteria, endotoxin, and viruses, allowing for transport of potentially harmful materials within and between animal housing environments (Zhang, 1999). Organic dust has been suspected as a cause of work-related respiratory symptoms such as asthma, organic dust toxic syndrome, and chronic bronchitis in farm workers. Researchers in Iowa and Kansas have characterized the composition and size distribution of dust particles in swine facilities (Donham et al., 1986; Heber et al., 1988); much of the dust is in the respirable size range and is predominantly from feces and feed. Methods for continuous measurement of dust and other contaminants are under development at this time by researchers at Kansas State University (CRIS Proj. No. KAN00381). Researchers in Texas are developing climate-driven models to predict dust and odor events, including ammonia emissions, associated with confined livestock production (CRIS Proj. No. TEX08545), and have characterized the distribution of particle sizes emitted from cattle feedlots (Sweeten et al., 1998).

Housing type and animal species greatly influence dust emissions (Takai et al., 1998). Both respirable and inhalable dust concentrations were determined to be lowest in cattle buildings followed by swine and poultry operations, respectively, based on 329 building observations. Because of animal and human health and performance concerns, methods to control dust emissions have received a great deal of attention. Assessment of wet scrubbers and biofilters, as part of ventilation systems, serve as outdoor odor and dust control methodologies under evaluation at the University of Illinois. Indoor air quality control measures include centrifugal dust removal systems, use of oil sprayers, and ozonation (Zhang, 1999). Dust reductions attributable to indoor ozonation of a swine facility in North Carolina (Keener et al., 1999) have stimulated further evaluation of indoor ozonation systems. Fan configuration and operating conditions will be tested at Kansas State University to determine optimal conditions for reduction of respirable particle mass. Dietary manipulation to reduce dust generation in turkey production systems will be researched at the University of Minnesota. Previous work has demonstrated that supplemental dietary fat does contribute to dust reduction (Mankell et al., 1995).

Bioaerosols

Air in animal production facilities often contains high concentrations of microorganisms and other biologically active substances, which are usually associated with dust particles. Such bioaerosols can cause or trigger respiratory diseases in man and animals. Endotoxins are cell-
wall components of dead Gram-negative bacteria; they are heat-stable lipopolysaccharide-protein complexes that are integral parts of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, of which animal waste is an important source (Windholz et al., 1976). Endotoxins are released into the environment after lysis of the bacteria cell or during active cell growth (Bradley, 1979). Endotoxins are commonly found in various agricultural settings where large amounts of organic dusts are generated (Olenchock, 1988). Endotoxins ranging from 4.5 to 48 g/g of airborne dust have been detected in samples taken from swine and poultry confinement units (Thedell et al., 1980). Clark et. al (1983) found average airborne endotoxin concentrations of 0.12 and 0.31 g/m3 in Swedish swine and poultry facilities, respectively. Donham and Cumro (1999) noted that endotoxin levels typically correlate well with total dust and respirable dust levels. Symptoms of endotoxin exposure including chest tightness, cough, shortness of breath, fever, and wheezing have been found in workers in swine confinement and poultry confinement units (Donham et al., 1984; Thelin et al., 1987).

Aerial pollutants have been measured downwind of swine farms. Homes et al. (1996) found that background concentrations of bacteria were amplified by animals from a swine facility up to 200 m downwind, and viable bacteria in particles were sampled up to 300 m downwind. A European study (Seedorf et al., 1998) found that endotoxin concentrations are lowest in cattle houses and highest in poultry houses, with daytime concentrations exceeding nighttime concentrations. Research seeking to positively influence the transport characteristics of pathogens and endotoxins from poultry facilities has resulted in the prototype development of a filtration system that curtails airborne transport of Salmonella sp. by trapping the dust that serves as a carrier for Salmonella and other microorganisms (Martin, 1998).

Researchers at the University of Minnesota and Purdue University are also considering animal practices and manure management influences on airborne transport of microflora (CRIS Proj. Nos. MIN-12-082 and IND051061A, respectively).

Nitrogen Emissions

Agricultural production results in large inputs of N in the form of inorganic fertilizer and excreta to the land with subsequent loss of N to ground and surface waters (mainly as NO3-) and to the atmosphere (as N2, N2O, NO, and NH3). Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, largely the result of denitrification processes in soils, are of particular concern with respect to global warming and greenhouse potential. Some results that considered both seasonal effects on soil characteristic impacts on N2O emission suggest that nitrification processes also contribute to total N2O emissions (Allen et al., 1996). Watson et al. (1992) estimates that N2O accounts for 2-4% of total Greenhouse Warming Potential (GWP). Upon photolytic oxidation nitric oxide (NO) is formed which contributes to depletion of stratospheric ozone. Ammonia emissions contribute substantially to acidification and are therefore a concern with respect to acid rain formation. Estimates suggest that 45% of total acid deposition in The Netherlands that occurred during 1989 was caused by ammonia (Groot Koerkamp et al., 1998). Similar to their work with dust and endotoxin emissions, Groot Koerkamp et al. (1998) found that ammonia emissions were lowest from cattle houses followed by swine and poultry houses.

Efforts to control ammonia emissions have demonstrated that reducing dietary crude protein concentrations does reduce room ammonia concentration (Hobbs et al., 1996; Obrock et al., 1997; Sutton et al., 1998a.) Diet modification work has been conducted in both swine and cattle (Kellems et al., 1979) with additional research in poultry currently underway (CRIS Proj. No. MINV-66-002). Typically, in nutritional work with monogastrics, reduced crude protein diets are achieved by including crystalline amino acids, demonstrating the impact of precision feeding on reducing nutrient excretions and emissions. Use of commercial additives, either in manure storage structures or as dietary additives, have demonstrated reduction in ammonia emissions (Heber et al., 1998; Powers et al., 1999) however, a great variability among products exists. Studies by Moore et al. (1996) and Brewer (1998) have shown that applications of alum can reduce the release of ammonia from poultry litter. Brewer (1998) estimated that whole house emissions of ammonia per flock from a commercial broiler house (12 m x 121 m) were reduced from 296 kg NH3-N to 131 kg NH3-N using alum applied at a rate of 1.22 kg/m2 compared to the untreated control.

Odor Emissions

Odors affect people differently based on their relationship with the odor source and their personal olfactory sensitivity. Odorous emissions can adversely affect the moods of farm neighbors (Schiffman et al., 1995). Odor-causing substances can also cause health effects such as eye, nose, and throat irritation, headache, and drowsiness, and possibly aggravate allergies, asthma, and bronchitis (Schiffman, 1998). For the most part, livestock odors are considered nuisance pollutants; however, the severity of the nuisance problem has resulted in concentrated efforts to control and quantify odors from animal production facilities. Development of methods to quantify livestock odors include human assessment methodology (Bundy et al., 1993) as well as objective means of measurement (Zahn et al., 1997; Powers et al., 1999). Elliott et al. (1978) reviewed odor measurement approaches and recommended analytical methods such as gas chromatography in addition to olfactory techniques. Researchers in Texas developed and evaluated dynamic olfactometers for ambient odor measurements, and were able to compare olfactometer and scentometer measurements (Sorel et al, 1983; Sweeten et al., 1983). More recently, olfactometry has been developed and applied to measurement of swine odors at Iowa State University (Bundy et al., 1993), the University of Minnesota (Nicolai et al., 1997), and Duke University (Schiffman and Williams, 1999). Researchers in Minnesota and Iowa are cooperatively developing a standard method of odor quantification using olfactometry and chemical analysis (CRIS Proj. No. IOW03254). Another odor sampling and measurement procedure which has proven successful in some situations with uniform, continuous odorous airflow involves exposing fabric swatches to the airflow and then presenting the swatches to human odor panelists (Miner and Licht, 1980; Schiffman and Williams, 1999). Since aspirating the swatches by pulling airflow through the swatch for differing durations allows adjustment of the odor intensity of the swatches (Miner and Licht, 1980) and swatch measurement costs can be substantially less than the cost of air sample odor evaluations, comparisons of dynamic olfactometry with air samples and swatch odor measurements could enable optimization of the swatch method.

As a result of strong correlations between odor and dust measured by researchers in Iowa (Hammond et al., 1981; Hoff et al., 1997), Germany (Hartung, 1986), and identified in other literature (Parbst, 1998), analysis and quantification of the relationships between dust and odor control will be conducted in this project. Several other projects are also focusing on odor emissions from animal operations (CRIS Proj. No. ILLU-10-0355, IOW03252, MICL01888, NC00261, KAN00353, TEX08548).

Researchers in Minnesota have recently developed very low-cost biofilters for treating odorous air from swine building manure pit airflows which can reduce odor and hydrogen sulfide emissions by over 90% (Nicolai and Janni, 1998). Although the biofilter size needed for cleaning all of the air from tunnel ventilated facilities may be problematic for many farms, biofiltration of low flow, highly concentrated airflows as in cold weather or manure pit ventilation is an attractive alternative.

Strategies to control odorous emissions have also included efforts to influence odors from manure storage facilities (Heber et al., 1998) and pre-excretion strategies via dietary manipulation (Bunce et al., 1995, Powers and Faust, 1998; Sutton et al., 1998b). Additional research in these areas are planned by researchers in this project and elsewhere (CRIS Proj. Nos. ILLU100202, 5438-31000-036-00D, SC01802, NEB11111, TEX08545).

Animal Response to the Environment

The effect of thermal environment upon animals has been the subject of many studies. Beginning in 1948 (Brody, 1948), the University of Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station began a series of research bulletins on environmental physiology. This series spanned a period of more than 20 years and emphasized beef and dairy animals. More recently, researchers have concentrated upon poultry, swine and dairy animals. Bonnet et al. (1997) found that, when exposed to high ambient temperatures, apparent metabolizable energy of broilers was significantly affected by the diet formulation. Several current projects are examining animal response to the thermal environment (CRIS Proj. Nos. ALA-50-015, FLA-AGE-03508, IND051041, IOW03355, KY005001, MIS- 3150, SC01568; ARS Proj. No. 5438-32630-002-00D)

Charles (1986) demonstrated that high environmental temperatures impair the growth and feed/gain ratio of broiler chickens. Recently, researchers have focused on the used of evaporative cooling and air velocity to alleviate the detrimental effects of high environmental temperatures. Lacy and Czarick (1992) reported improvements in broiler weight gain in tunnel ventilated houses when compared to cross-ventilated houses. Air velocity is greater in a tunnel ventilated house than in a cross-ventilated house, with similar volumetric airflow rates. Increasing the air velocity causes a broiler to lose more heat through sensible heat loss rather than latent heat loss, without reducing total heat loss (Timmons and Hillman, 1993; Simmons et.al., 1997). Lott et al. (1998) reported that as air velocity increased, body weight gain increased and feed:gain improved in male broilers. Havenstein et al. (1994) reported improvements in nutrition and genetic potential have resulted in continuous improvements in growth and feed utilization by broiler chickens since 1957. Reece and Lott (1981, 1983) reported the effects of the thermal environment on broiler chickens. May et al. (1998) reported body weight gain of male broilers was decreased as environmental temperature increased and feed/gain ratio increased. They suggested more research needed to be conducted to determine the effects of the thermal environment on the female broiler chicken and the interaction of relative humidity and temperature on broiler performance.

Animal response to air quality has also been the subject of considerable study. Wathes (1998) summarizes air quality problems relative to poultry, swine and human health. Hamilton et al. (1996) found that the severity of turbinate atrophy in swine induced by Pasteruelli multocida was a maximum at ammonia levels of 10 to 15 ppm, and that ammonia had a synergistic effect, which has been documented for human exposure to ammonia and dust in swine buildings as well (Donham and Cumro, 1999). Jones et al. (1996) found that pigs are averse to ammonia at concentrations greater than 10 ppm. Whyte (1993) reported that dust and ammonia are the two most significant respiratory hazards to health of poultry production workers. In a later report, Whyte et al. (1998) reported a "prevalence of respiratory impairment of 8%" among UK poultry workers due to chronic exposure to poultry dust. Li (1997) reviewed the effects of animal building pollutants upon human health and suggested the development of multi-purpose environmental control methods. Donham (1991) reported on an epidemiologic study of swine health in Sweden and found several air contaminants (dust, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and microbes) to be correlated with swine health problems. He recommended maximum levels for these components. Zhang et al. (1998) used human subjects to test responses to typical swine housing environments, with and without canola oil treatment for dust control. Measurements immediately after five hours exposure showed significant reduction in respiratory capacity for subjects exposed to the untreated environment. Exposure to the canola oil treated environment resulted in a much smaller reduction in capacity. Reynolds et al. (1997) measured dust, endotoxins and ammonia in the environment outside swine production facilities. At 60 m from the facilities, they found that dust and endotoxins levels were near the lower detection limits. Measurable ammonia levels were detected. They suggested that ammonia might serve as a surrogate measure of other gases emitted by the facilities. Their report summarizes health concerns documented in other studies referenced in the report. Current and proposed work in the air quality area, especially ammonia and dust, includes the following projects: ARK01602, GEO00751, ILLU-10-340, ILLU-10-345, IND046066, KAN00355, KYOO5001, MIN-12-076, NC00261, PEN03386, SC01568, TN0009 5, TEX08545, VA-136141, WIS03987).

Optimizing Energy and Resource Use

Researchers have established that dirt, dust, and moisture accumulation can significantly degrade performance of agricultural fans (Person et al., 1979). Recently, Simmons and Lott (1993, 1997b) conducted several studies of fan performance and provided suggestions for improved ventilation and reduced energy use. Heber and Li also studied fan performance and provided recommendations for predicting performance of variable speed fans (Heber and Li, 1995; Li and Heber, 1995). Stark et al. (1994) examined energy reduction options for broiler houses. They found that compact fluorescent lights resulted in a payback of less than two years. Reflective roof coatings and energy efficient motor retrofits could not be justified on energy savings alone. Bucklin et al. (1993) reached a similar conclusion regarding reflective roof coatings. Xin et al. (1993) compared energy efficiency of commercial broiler houses to the efficiency of houses designed for improved efficiency. They also compared ventilation systems and various evaporative cooling systems. Flood et al. (1998) found that ceiling fans reduced total energy requirements in broiler houses.

Aho and Timmons (1991) proposed a control model for layer house ventilation based upon weather and economic factors. Several investigators (Gates and Overhults, 1991; Timmons et al., 1995) have studied application of a time integrated variable (TIV) control systems for optimizing ventilation. Gates et al. (1996) used field measurements from operating broiler houses to develop a program to estimate minimum ventilation requirements. This and related work to improve environmental control systems continues (CRIS Proj. Nos. ALA00817, KY005001, IOW03355, NC00261, NYC-123431). Zhang and Barber (1995) evaluated heating/ventilation control strategies for livestock buildings in the Canadian Prairie.

Shao et al. (1997) developed a neural network model based upon animal behavior input for controlling swine comfort. They suggest that behavior-based controls would improve animal well-being and production efficiency. Klooster (1996) also proposed an animal-based ventilation control model.

A significant amount of the past and current work in the subject areas reviewed herein has been done by universities and USDA units participating in this proposal. The proposal which follows is intended to continue, expand, and better integrate the work by these participants.

OBJECTIVES:

1.	Develop and improve sustainable systems to reduce air pollution emissions from poultry, swine, and dairy buildings and improve indoor air quality.

2.	Quantify animal response to thermal environments and develop improved methods for providing productive thermal environments without degrading air quality or sustainability.

3.	Develop and improve methods of optimizing energy and resource utilization in poultry and livestock facilities to increase profitability without degrading air quality or animal well- being.

PROCEDURES:

Objective 1: Develop and improve sustainable systems to reduce air pollution emissions from poultry, swine, and dairy buildings and improve indoor air quality.

The purpose of Objective 1 is to identify cost-effective strategies to improve indoor and outdoor air quality through housing and manure or litter management. As part of this objective, standard methods to quantify odor, gas and dust emissions will be applied and new methods will be developed; Objective 1 participants will collectively evaluate measurement procedures and communicate recommended procedures to project participants. Investigations to explore methods of controlling gaseous and dust emissions from litter and housing systems will be conducted. Quantified emissions will include NH3, H2S, and odor. The NC leader will coordinate work to achieve Objective 1 and summarize results of the tasks in each annual report. Milestones for achieving Objective 1 will include summaries of dietary manipulation and litter management methods and effects on air quality and emissions, development of a spreadsheet for supporting decision-making regarding air pollution control, development of protocols for quantifying emissions from dispersion devices and dust-borne odors, and development of a robust electronic nose which accounts for dust-borne odors.

Dietary Manipulation

Dietary manipulation to alter or minimize excreta concentrations of compounds that metabolize to gaseous emissions of interest will be investigated by researchers in IA, NC, IN, KY, MD, and OK. Dietary treatments including protein optimization and minimization, energy-protein balancing, ingredient selection, and additive utilization will be tested to determine their effectiveness in reducing excreta concentrations and aerial emissions. Evaluations of dietary manipulation for swine will be conducted by IA, NC, and KY; evaluations for poultry and dairy cattle will be conducted by MD and IA, respectively. The IA leader will coordinate dietary manipulation studies and summarize results for a collaborative publication in a scientific journal, which will constitute a milestone for Objective 1 that should be completed within 3 years. The OK leader will incorporate economic information from the dietary studies, with assistance from the IA leader, into a spreadsheet system for supporting decision-making regarding swine facility waste management and pollution control. Completion of the spreadsheet after the economic and technical results from the dietary study summary are incorporated, by the end of this Project, will constitute another milestone for Objective 1 that should be completed within 4 years.

Litter Management

The MS leader will coordinate evaluations of poultry litter modifications to reduce emissions, to be conducted by AL, AR, MS, PA, and SC. AL, AR and MS will determine effects of sand, paper products, cotton seed lint, and other litter amendments and alternatives on ammonia levels and emissions. These researchers will evaluate the effect of litter amendments on ammonia volatilization and determine the effectiveness of using chemicals, including alum, to inhibit volatilization from litter on poultry production farms. Evaluations will be based on measured gas flux, bird weight gains, feed conversion, and percent mortality. The AL, AR, and MS researchers will replicate measurements of ammonia using colorimetric stain tubes for ammonia level and emission determinations. Energy use in the houses will also be evaluated to determine if changes in ammonia levels impact energy costs and profitability. MS will also evaluate effects of litter management factors, including frequency of replacement, on ammonia levels and emissions. PA will evaluate effects of reduced indoor temperature for heating fuel conservation on indoor humidity and ammonia levels and emissions. SC will finish evaluating effects of litter aeration on indoor ammonia levels and emissions. The MS leader will summarize emission measurements and indoor air quality levels obtained by the AL, AR, MS, PA, and SC researchers. The MS leader will also coordinate development of a collaborative scientific journal publication summarizing litter management effects on indoor air quality and emissions. This manuscript will constitute a milestone for achieving Objective 1 and should be accomplished within 3 years.

Ventilation and Air Cleaning

Investigators in GA, NC, SC, IA, and IL will measure emissions of air pollutants from ventilated buildings and evaluate air cleaning approaches as described below. Emissions from forced- ventilation housing will be evaluated using measurements of air mass flow rates and concentrations of ammonia, methane, odor-causing compounds (odorants), odor levels from olfactometry panels, endotoxin, and dust. Naturally-ventilated houses used in the studies will require tracer, plume, or integrated horizontal-flux atmospheric transport techniques to quantify emission rates. Analyte concentrations will be measured using techniques employed for forced- ventilation housing. Research to improve control of indoor ammonia levels will focus on source reduction and improved air mixing and ventilation. The NC leader will coordinate ventilation and air cleaning tasks and summarize results in annual reports of this project. The OK leader will incorporate economic information from the indoor air and exhaust air cleaning system evaluations into a spreadsheet system to assist with decision-making regarding waste management and pollution control for swine producers. As noted previously, this spreadsheet will constitute a milestone for Objective 1 and should be completed within 4 years.

The NC and GA leaders will collaborate to evaluate indoor ozonation, wet pad scrubbing using evaporative cooling pads, and windbreak walls for reducing dust momentum and facilitating dust deposition on swine farms in NC and GA; they will share instruments for dust and odor measurements on at least three sites. Evaluations of indoor ozonation and wet pad scrubbing systems with tunnel ventilated buildings will involve measurement of air pollutants in ambient outdoor air at the air inlets and air exiting the exhaust fans for test and control situations. The NC and GA leaders will collaborate in publishing journal articles summarizing results of the indoor ozonation, wet pad scrubbing, and windbreak wall evaluations. IA researchers will also evaluate dust and odor dispersion using air deflectors added to exhaust fans. The NC leader will coordinate development of a protocol for evaluating the dispersion devices (walls and deflectors) by NC, GA, and IA researchers; this protocol will address measurement of airflow parameters and dust and odor emission rates at exhaust fans and the air plumes exiting the area bounded by the dispersion devices. Development of this protocol will serve as a milestone for achieving Objective 1, which should be accomplished within two years, and results will be published in a collaborative journal article by the researchers. The IL leader will evaluate exhaust airflow wet scrubbing using misting, low-pressure cyclones for dust removal, and indoor oil spraying. Aerosol concentrations will be measured using optical counters, viable samplers and gravimetric samplers. The SC leader will measure dust, ammonia, and odor levels and emissions for a broiler facility with an aerated litter floor, over a range of floor ventilation rates. As noted above, the NC leader will coordinate ventilation and air cleaning tasks and summarize results in annual reports of this project.

Emission Quantification

Investigators in GA, NC, SC, TN, TX, IA, IL, and both USDA/ARS-GA locations (Watkinsville and Athens, GA) will cooperate in quantifying air pollutant emissions from poultry and swine buildings. The NC leader will coordinate emission quantification tasks and will summarize results for annual reports of this project.

Dust: Researchers in NC, GA, SC, TN, IA, and IL will evaluate dust control methods and quantify dust emissions, as noted under Ventilation and Air Cleaning. Total and respirable dust levels will be measured using air sampling pumps with glass fiber filters and microbalances, with filters desiccated before and after sampling. Dust size distributions in the respirable size ranges will be quantified using optical particle counters and multi-stage impactors (for gravimetric determination of dust mass in the size ranges). Investigators in IA, IL, NC, and GA will develop a method of filtering dust from air samples and desorbing dust-borne odorants into other air samples and water. They will evaluate methods of quantifying the dust-borne portion of odorants and odors using aspirated cotton swatches with and without dust filters, air sampling with and without dust filters, and pumping sampled air through specified volumes of water for subsequent odor panel evaluation (headspace analysis). The TN leader will measure dust, ammonia, and odor emissions from swine buildings. The NC leader will coordinate evaluations of dust-borne odor measurement methods and summarizing of results in a report to be published as a collaborative manuscript; establishment of recommended procedures for quantifying dust- borne odors will serve as another milestone for achieving Objective 1 and should be completed within two years.

Odor: Researchers in IA, IL, NC, and SC will use olfactometry to quantify odorous emissions as affected by experimental treatments. Dynamic dilution, triangular forced-choice olfactometry with trained human panelists will be employed at Iowa State University, the University of Minnesota, Purdue University, and Duke University. Researchers in IA and NC will collect replicate air and dust samples from swine building exhaust fans and send to each of these four odor measurement laboratories for odor measurements. Results will be analyzed in conjunction with results of the MN-IA project (CRIS Proj. No. IOW03254) to standardize odor measurement methods. NC will also employ unaspirated and aspirated cotton swatches and the Scentometer to measure odors at the building exhaust fans for correlation with olfactometry results from the same sampling locations and periods. Optimization of electronic nose technology, as a means of characterizing human response to livestock odors, will be conducted by TX, IA and NC. NC will employ dust filtering and methods of desorbing odorants from captured dust to separate vaporous and dust-borne odor streams to their electronic nose, and will compare vaporous vs. dust-borne odor levels obtained using dynamic olfactometry, filtered and unfiltered fabric swatches, and the electronic nose. After development of a successful device and procedure for dust effect characterization, IA and TX will evaluate them with their electronic noses. Development of a robust electronic nose capable of accounting for dust-borne odorants would constitute another milestone for achieving Objective 1, and may be achievable within the term of the project (five years).

Research to characterize and improve control of odorous emissions will focus on improving measurement of emissions, methods of exhaust air filtering, and aerial (wind) dispersion. Correlations between ambient conditions, ventilation rates, system types and odor will be developed. Researchers in GA, IA, and NC will identify air plumes issuing from tunnel ventilated buildings using smoke candles, sample particulates, odorants, odors, and endotoxin at several locations in the plumes, and correlate pollutant levels with particulate levels to determine if dispersion modeling of dust will enable prediction of dispersion of the correlated pollutants. NC, GA, IA, and IL researchers will evaluate effects of exhaust air filters on odor and ammonia emission rates from swine and poultry facilities, as well as effects on ventilation airflow resistance and system power requirements. The dust/odor relationships developed by project researchers, noted under the Dust section, will be applied to all odor emission calculations to determine effects of accounting for dust-borne odorants on total emissions. Analysis of the exhaust data to determine technical performance of the filtering systems; maintenance requirements, including frequency and appropriate methods of cleaning and replacing or recharging the filter media, will also be conducted for each system tested.

Bioaerosols: GA, IA, IL, and NC researchers will measure endotoxin and bacteria levels in animal facility ventilation airflows associated with field studies. The NC leader will correlate endotoxin and dust levels, bacteria and dust levels, and fungal spore and dust levels, in plumes originating from swine building exhaust fans for distances up to 300 m downwind; plumes will be visualized before and after sampling using smoke candles. Bioaerosol measurements obtained in GA, IA, IL, and NC will be summarized in each Annual Report.

Chemical analyses: Researchers in USDA/ARS-GA will use tunable diode laser spectrometry or gas washing techniques to measure ammonia and methane concentrations emitted from housing systems. Gaseous emissions of chemical analytes, as affected by diet will be measured using a number of techniques. Researchers in IA, IL, NC, and GA will employ gas chromatography with differing detection systems (mass spectrometry, flame ionization detection, pulsed helium ionization detection, etc.) to quantify odorous compounds in air and dust samples. NC personnel will also use FTIR technology to identify and quantify compounds emitted during dietary modification experiments.

Animal and Worker Health

Investigators in GA, KY, NC, SC, TN, and USDA/ARS-GA, Athens will cooperate in evaluating effects of poultry and livestock house environments on animal and human health. The USDA/ARS-GA, Athens leader will coordinate animal and worker health evaluation tasks and summarize results for the final report of the project.

Transmission of disease by air will be the research focus of participants from USDA/ARS-GA, Athens station. Developments of techniques to identify the role of aerial transport in transmission of select poultry diseases and development of methods to reduce transmission of these diseases are the emphasis of the research effort. Birds will be exposed to different aerosol concentrations and their lung tissue will be examined and tested for damage, including lesions and other abnormalities, following slaughter. The degree of harm that environments with and without dust control may cause will be determined. Researchers will incorporate evidence of respiratory damage in the evaluation of dust control approaches.

Considering the potential improvements in production efficiency that might accrue to caged broiler production, characterization of indoor air quality (ammonia, dust, endotoxin, and odor) for caged poultry facilities is of interest to this project. GA will therefore cooperate with SC in measuring air quality in a caged poultry brooding facility; NC will also measure air quality in a caged broiler production building. GA will evaluate indoor air quality in light of instrument accuracy and worker exposure levels and determine if management practices for caged rearing facilities must be revised to ensure bird and farm worker health.

The GA and NC leaders will cooperate in evaluating exposure of poultry and swine facility workers to airborne contaminants. GA will measure exposures of poultry workers, and NC will measure exposure of swine workers, to dust, ammonia and microbial contaminants. These workers will be monitored during the normal course of their work and not subjected to other environments. Monitoring of human exposures will adhere to the pertinent protocols at each station. In addition to summarizing results to quantify worker exposures and dust meter reliability, GA will analyze these data in conjunction with measured air quality levels inside buildings to determine if standard procedures for measuring indoor air quality are useful in predicting worker exposures. The NC researchers will develop a livestock odor exposure system enabling dilution of animal building exhaust airflow with cleaned air, to expose human subjects to ranges of pollutant levels representative of conditions downwind of farms. Collaboration with medical researchers at UNC-Chapel Hill, Duke University, the University of Iowa, and elsewhere will be sought to enable comprehensive evaluation of acute human health effects, including hormonal and irritation responses, using the exposure system. Approval for experimentation with human subjects for this project will be obtained by investigators prior to any exposure studies.

Objective 2: Quantify animal response to thermal environments and develop improved methods for providing productive thermal environments without degrading air quality or sustainability.

The purpose of Objective 2 is to ensure that methods of environmental control provide adequate or improved thermal environments while addressing air quality and other concerns. Responses of the animals to thermal environments will be determined in order to develop improved thermal environment indices, improve prediction accuracy of simulation models, and better understand animal comfort ranges. Methods of providing and controlling thermal environments, including ventilation, heating, and cooling systems and improved electronic controls, will be evaluated in terms of performance in providing desired environments, animal performance and welfare, energy use, economic factors, and effects on air quality and emissions. The FL leader will coordinate work under Objective 2. Milestones for achieving Objective 2 will include development of thermal environment index models for poultry and swine, design values for poultry performance in tunnel ventilated, evaporatively cooled housing, summarizing methods and evaluations of time-integrated variable (TIV) electronic control for animal housing, and development of a sophisticated electronic control system for poultry and swine environments incorporating systems control techniques.

Animal Responses to Thermal Environments

Thermal responses of poultry will be measured and analyzed to establish thermal environment indices (TEI's) which account for effects of air temperature, humidity, air speed, and thermal radiation on the animals. The project leaders for FL, GA, SC, and USDA/ARS-MS will develop TEI's for broilers. The FL leader will collaborate with Brazil in correlating dry bulb temperature, black globe temperature, and humidity with bird temperature and production parameters in warm weather, and will develop a temperature-humidity index. The USDA/ARS- MS and SC leaders will summarize results of experiments with their apparatus to control the black globe temperature, humidity, and air velocity and incorporate these three parameters into a comprehensive TEI. USDA/ARS-MS will complete wind tunnel evaluations of effects of wind speed on bird productivity. The USDA/ARS-MS, SC, and FL leaders will then compare the resulting broiler TEI's with published TEI's for poultry and swine, and publish appropriate TEI models for a range of ambient conditions in a collaborative journal article. Development of these TEI models will serve as a milestone for achieving Objective 2 and should be completed within four years. IA researchers will employ computer imaging analysis of swine behavior to determine swine responses to thermal environments and will summarize the results and indicate feasibility and effectiveness of the method. The FL leader will coordinate tasks in determining animal responses to thermal environment.

Ventilation Systems and Environmental Control

Improved methods of cooling stressed animals and controlling the ventilation and environmental control systems will be developed. AL and AR researchers will determine broiler performance in terms of feed efficiency, weight gain, and mortality for evaporatively cooled, tunnel ventilated housing and will summarize results to give design values of expected bird performance for such systems in a collaborative journal article. Development of design values for bird performance in evaporatively cooled, tunnel ventilated housing will serve as a milestone for achieving Objective 2 which should be completed within three years. AL researchers will also measure the performance of alternative evaporative cooling pad wetting methods in terms of pad cooling efficiency and temperature reductions, to determine design efficiencies for fogging pad systems with different nozzle arrangements. NC researchers will complete evaluation of the 2.5 m diameter paddle fan for cooling floor reared poultry; results of field trials comparing air mixing using the paddle fans blowing downward with propeller fans blowing horizontally will be analyzed in terms of bird weight gain, feed efficiency, mortality, electricity use, and air velocity distribution. Indoor dust and ammonia levels will be measured to determine potential fan effects.

The project leaders for KY, NC, and NY will complete evaluation of time-integrating (TIV) control of ventilation and cooling. KY and NC will summarize results of TIV trials in tunnel ventilated and naturally ventilated broiler housing and NY will evaluate TIV control of tunnel ventilated dairy buildings. Evaluations will be based on effectiveness of the controller in adjusting environmental control to improve cooling when time-averaged temperatures exceed the TIV setpoint, as well as energy use and animal performance indicators. The KY leader will coordinate development of a collaborative publication summarizing results of TIV control methods, which will serve as a milestone for achieving Objective 2 and should be completed in two years.

Researchers in IA, IL, KY, and USDA/ARS-Athens, GA will develop electronic control systems for poultry and swine facilities based on systems control theory techniques, results of the TIV control evaluations, and incorporation of qualitative measures such as bird behavior and genetic intormation into fuzzy logic control. These researchers will then develop a single electronic control system incorporating these features suitable for both poultry and swine environment control, which will serve as another milestone for achieving Objective 2 and should be accomplished within the term of this project (five years). The KY leader will coordinate these tasks in developing improved ventilation and environmental control.

Objective 3: Develop and improve methods of optimizing energy and resource utilization in poultry and livestock facilities to increase profitability without degrading air quality or animal well-being.

The purpose of Objective 3 is to ensure that energy and resource utilization in poultry and livestock facilities remain efficient and not unduly increased by attempts to control air quality or emissions. Efficiency of fans and ventilation systems with emission controls will be evaluated and opportunities for developing alternative fuels from waste materials will be explored. Deregulation of electricity generation will be analyzed to determine potential effects on livestock and poultry facilities and producers. The PA leader will coordinate tasks in meeting Objective 3. Milestones for achieving Objective 3 will include comparison of field and laboratory evaluations of ventilation system component performance, a summary of evaluations of alternative heating fuels from biomass and thermochemical conversion of manure, and a summary of effectiveness of alternative poultry, swine, and dairy management systems in taking advantage of the benefits of deregulation of electricity and gas.

Ventilation Efficiency

Researchers in USDA/ARS-MS, IA, and IL will evaluate ventilation system component performance using different methods and collaboratively summarize results. The USDA/ARS- MS leader will evaluate and document ventilation fan performance using propeller anemometers, as a function of several variables to optimize energy use for ventilation. USDA/ARS-MS will develop a menu-driven spreadsheet to be posted on the World Wide Web. The spreadsheet will enable users to be guided in making management decisions impacting energy use for animal confinement facilities. IA researchers will use their Air Dispersion Laboratory and IL researchers will use their Bioenvironmental and Structural Systems (BESS) Laboratory to evaluate performance of ventilation fans, air inlets, ridges, vents, light traps, and other components used in animal confinement facilities, using the same standard method. USDA/ARS-MS, IA, and IL researchers will then compare the spreadsheet and laboratory results to determine discrepancies and degree of concordance of fan performance determinations. The USDA/ARS-MS leader will coordinate ventilation efficiency tasks and development of a collaborative publication, with IA and IL, which compares field evaluations using anemometers with laboratory evaluations using standard methods. The comparison of field and laboratory methods and results will serve as a milestone for achieving Objective 3 and should be completed within three years.

The NC leader will measure effects of wet scrubbers and windbreak walls for reducing swine building emissions on exhaust fan static pressures and power consumption as noted under Objective 1, and will compare with fan performance changes due to biofilters and other wet scrubbers from the literature.

Alternative Fuels

The AR leader will evaluate the efficacy of using various biomass fuels (e.g., wood pellets, sawdust, poultry litter) for poultry brooding based on costs, pollution effects, labor requirements, space requirements, and equipment requirements for the various fuels. The IL leader will employ thermochemical conversion (TCC) of animal manure in a heated enclosure to produce oil and gas. They will determine the critical solids content of the manure to produce sufficient fuels to sustain the process, evaluate effects of temperature, pressure, and retention time on fuel production using a batch reactor, and determine nutrient removal efficiency. IL will then determine potential applicability of TCC fuels for poultry and livestock heating systems using the same criteria used by AR for biomass fuels. The IL leader will coordinate development of a collaborative publication with AR summarizing evaluations of biomass and TCC fuels, which will serve as a milestone for achieving Objective 3 and should be completed within four years.

Energy and Management

The PA leader will evaluate the potential impacts of the deregulation of electricity generation and natural gas on established management practices for animal production systems. PA will also evaluate the potential benefits of various energy strategies on poultry and livestock facilities including load management, energy management systems, energy procurement, and new technologies for on-site generation. Alternative management systems will be evaluated for effectiveness in taking advantage of the benefits of deregulation of electricity and gas. Emphasis will be placed on defining parameters for optimal energy use to increase profitability and cash flow of animal production systems. The NC leader will provide estimates of electricity costs and requirements for odor control systems being evaluated, including windbreak walls, wet scrubbers, and indoor ozonation, as examples of alternative management systems. The PA leader will coordinate development of a publication summarizing results of the comparison of these energy management strategies, which will serve as a milestone for achieving Objective 3 and should be completed within four years.

EXPECTED OUTCOMES:

This project is expected to yield designs and methods to facilitate reduction of poultry and livestock building emissions. Work to achieve Objective 1 will produce new system designs such as windbreak wall systems, indoor ozonation, and exhaust air scrubbers. Improvements in measuring techniques such as methods of quantifying both dust-borne and gaseous odorants will assist producers and regulators in accurately measuring relevant pollutant levels. The information summaries to be developed by sub-objective coordinators will assist in transferring new technology to producers and citizens; web-based and paper publications, spreadsheets, workshops, and field days resulting from research in the project will facilitate technology transfer. Information on indoor exposure to air pollutants will hopefully stimulate development of respiratory protection programs to benefit workers. Measurement of low air pollution levels in cage broiler facilities may assist in overcoming resistance to such facilities due to animal welfare or economic considerations, and stimulate caged broiler production in the U.S.

For Objective 2, development and validation of the Thermal Environment Indexes (TEI's) will benefit researchers and equipment manufacturers by identifying optimal ranges of target indoor conditions (temperature, humidity, air velocity, and thermal radiation). Development of design values for performance of poultry in tunnel ventilated, evaporatively cooled housing will facilitate objective decision-making by producers planning to upgrade or build new facilities. The time-averaging (TIV) and other electronic control methods are expected to prove useful to producers in automating the adjustment of equipment in ways that better account for stressful conditions.

For Objective 3, development and publication of fan test data summaries and the fan testing spreadsheet will assist fan manufacturers and poultry and livestock producers in optimizing fan specifications. Improved fan performance resulting from selection of more efficient fans would reduce energy consumption and better ensure adequate indoor thermal conditions (and animal productivity). Alternative fuels from biomass and thermochemical conversion of animal manure to oil and gas could enhance the economic viability of livestock operations. Finally, recommendations regarding management practices to optimize the effects of electricity deregulation could benefit producers, e.g. by stimulating integrated poultry or swine production companies to incorporate electricity costs into their arrangements with contract growers.

ORGANIZATION:

A Regional Technical Committee shall be organized in accordance with the Manual for Cooperative Regional Research. The voting membership of the Regional Technical Committee shall include one representative from each cooperating agricultural experiment station as appointed by the respective Director and a technical representative of each cooperating USDA/ARS location. Nonvoting members shall consist of other representatives of participating organizations, the Administrative Advisor, and the USDA/CSRS Representative. All voting members of the Technical Committee are eligible for office.

A committee consisting of the Administrative Advisor, outgoing chair, chair, secretary, and one additional member elected from the Technical Committee shall constitute the Executive Committee and shall have the authority to act in its behalf. A member shall be elected to the Executive Committee each year and shall serve for four years. This member will become secretary the second year and the chair the third year of his or her term. No elected member of the Executive Committee may be re-elected to this committee until one year after the expiration of his or her term.

The duties of the Technical Committee will be to coordinate the planning and work of the project and make such recommendations as are necessary through the Administrative Advisor to the Southern Association of Agricultural Experiment Station Directors. The functions of the chair will be to preside over meetings and edit the annual report. The recording secretary shall take minutes at the annual meeting and distribute these to members of the committee within a month of the meeting.

Annual meetings of this committee will be held for the purpose of conducting the business connected with the project.

ATTACHMENTS:

PROJECT LEADERS:

Experiment Stations	Discipline

Alabama

* Simpson, Eugene H.	Agr. Economics

Donald, J.	Agr. Engineering

Flood, Clifford A. Jr.	Agr. Engineering

Blake, John P.	Poultry Science

Arkansas

* Costello, Thomas A.	Agr. Engineering

Clark, Dustan	Veterinary Science

Florida

* Bucklin, Ray	Agr. Engineering

Butler, Jerry	Med. & Vet. Entomol.

Georgia

* Van Wicklen, Garrett L.	Agr. Engineering

Kentucky

* Gates, Richard S.	Agr. Engineering

Overhults, Douglas G.	Agr. Engineering

Turner, Larry W.	Agr. Engineering

Cantor, Austin H.	Animal Science

Pescatore, Tony	Poultry Science

Mississippi

* Chamblee, Tim	Poultry Science

Franks, Wayne	Animal Science

North Carolina

* Bottcher, Robert W.	Agr. Engineering

Brake, John T.	Poultry Physiol. & Mgt.

van Kempen, Theo	Animal Science

Oklahoma

* Stoecker, Art	Agr. Economics

South Carolina

* Allen, W. Harold	Agr. Engineering

McConnell, J.C.	Animal & Vet. Science

Tennessee

* Wilhelm, Luther R.	Agr. Engineering

Smith, Michael O.	Poultry Science

Mathew, A.G.	Swine Growth and Development

Texas

* Lacey, Ron	Agr. Engineering

Carey, John	Poultry Science

Illinois

* Zhang, Yuanhui	Agr. Engineering

Iowa

* Powers, Wendy	Animal Science

Hoff, Steven	Agr. Engineering

Xin, Hongwei	Agr. Engineering

Maryland

* Angel, Roselina	Animal Science

New York

* Timmons, Michael	Agr. Engineering

Gooch, Curt	Agr. Engineering

Pennsylvania

* Buffington, Dennis	Agr. Engineering

Hulet, R.M.	Poultry Management and Physiology

Kephart Kenneth B.	Swine Odor Management

Komarneni, S.	Ammonia Adsorption

Patterson, P.H.	Poultry Management and Nutrition

USDA/ARS - Mississippi State, MS

* Simmons, John D.	Agr. Engineering

USDA/ARS - Watkinsville, GA

* Harper, Lowry	Agr. Engineering

USDA/ARS - Athens, GA

* Mitchell, Bailey	Agr. Engineering

*Technical Representative

RESOURCES:

Location	Project Participant	Resources	Discipline

SY PY TY

Experiment Stations:

Alabama	E.H. Simpson (L)	0.3 0	0	Agr. Economics

J. Donald (C)	Agr. Engineering

C.A. Flood, Jr. (C)	Agr. Engineering

J. P. Blake (C)	Poultry Science

Arkansas	T.A. Costello (L)	0.1	0	0	Agr. Engineering

D. Clark (C)	Vet. Science

Florida	R.A. Bucklin (L)	0.5	3.1	0.3	Agr. Engineering

J. Butler(C)	Med. & Vet. Entomol.

Georgia	G.L. Van Wicklen (L)0.35	0	0.3	Agr. Engineering

Kentucky	R.S. Gates (L)	Agr. Engineering

D.G. Overhults (L)	Agr. Engineering

L.W. Turner (C)	Agr. Engineering

A.H. Cantor (C)	Animal Science

A. Pescatore (C)	Poultry Science

Mississippi	T. Chamblee (L)	0.2	0	0	Poultry Science

W. Franks (C)	Animal Science

North Carolina	R.W. Bottcher (L)	0.8	0	0.3	Agr. Engineering

J.T. Brake (C)	Poultry Physiol. & Mgt.

T. van Kempen (C)	Animal Science

Oklahoma	A. Stoecker (L)	0.1	0.1	0	Agr. Economics

South Carolina	W.H. Allen (C)	0.5	0	0	Agr. Engineering

J.C. McConnell (C)	Animal & Vet. Science

Tennessee	L.R. Wilhelm (L)	0.6	0.5	0.1	Agr. Engineering

M.O. Smith (C)	Poultry Science

A.G. Mathew (C)	Swine Growth & Development

Texas	R. Lacey (L)	0.2	0	0	Agr. Engineering

J. Carey (C)	Poultry Science

Illinois	Y. Zhang (L)	0.2	0.3	0.2	Agr. Engineering

Iowa	W. Powers (L)	0.35	0.25	0	Animal Science

S.J. Hoff (C)	Agr. Engineering

H. Xin (C)	Agr. Engineering

Maryland	C.R. Angel (L)	0.3	0.2	0.2	Animal Science

New York	M.B. Timmons (L)	0.35	0	0	Agr. Engineering

C. Gooch (C)	Agr. Engineering

Pennsylvania	D. Buffington (L)	0.35	0.6	0.35	Agr. Engineering

R. M. Hulet	Poultry Mgmt Physiol

K. B. Kephart	Swine Odor Mgmt

S. Komarneni	Ammonia Adsorption

P. H. Patterson	Poultry Mgmt. Nutr.

USDA/ARS Stations:

Mississippi State, MS J.D. Simmons (L)	0.4	0	0.2	Agr. Engineering

Watkinsville, GA	L. Harper (L)	2.0	0.6	2.0	Agr. Engineering

Athens, GA	B. Mitchell (L)	0.8	0	0.6	Agr. Engineering

__________________

TOTALS	8.40	5.65	4.55

CRITICAL REVIEW:	Regional Research Project S-261, "Interior Environment and Energy Use in Poultry and Livestock Facilities"

1. Research work accomplished under S-261:

Objective 1: Develop methods to quantify and reduce levels of dust, ammonia, and odors in poultry and swine facilities.

Several stations measured levels of ammonia and other gases, dust, and odors in conjunction with monitoring and field evaluations. AR measured ammonia levels in poultry buildings with alum treatment of litter; they were able to obtain reasonable ammonia control using half the recommended alum application rate of 0.2 lb/bird (approx. 2 tons/house). Ammonia fluxes have been reduced by 100% at the full rate and by about 50% at the lower rate. Reducing the ammonia volatilization also reduces the cold weather ventilation rate needed for indoor air quality, which can also reduce heating fuel use when supplemental heating is used. KY conducted several experiments involving measurement of ammonia emissions as well as other parameters to determine effects of precision nutrient formulations; they identified candidate feeds for further studies, correlated dietary crude protein and litter nitrogen, equilibrium CO2 and ammonia gas concentrations, and found that litter temperature was crucial for accurately estimating ammonia levels. USDA/ARS-MS and SC evaluated litter drying methods. USDA/ARS-MS determined litter drying rates in a wind tunnel over ranges of air speeds, air temperatures, and humidities. SC tested five rates of aeration of broiler litter for effects on ammonia production, litter pH and moisture content, and odor. Aeration concentrated approximately 75% of the ammonia produced in 20-30% of the ventilation airflow, enabling effective treatment. Aeration also reduced indoor dust levels, but odor measurements were inconclusive.

KY and TN monitored levels of several gases including ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. KY evaluated emission of NH3, H2S, CH4, and CO2 from a simulated swine manure pit as affected by feeding finishing pigs different dietary treatments; they found that values of pH tended to be correlated with ammonia emissions and that diet manipulation appears to be a useful tool for controlling ammonia levels and emissions. TN monitored levels of O2, CO, H2S, and NH3, as well as ambient conditions, continuously in two swine production facilities - one with pit ventilation and the other without pit ventilation. Gas levels varied diurnally and the building with pit ventilation had significantly lower ammonia and hydrogen sulfide levels than the other building. Flushing of the pits caused brief increases in hydrogen sulfide and ammonia levels. TN also tested a commercially available carbon filter system for removing ammonia from poultry layer building exhaust airflow, but found it to be ineffective.

GA and NC measured ammonia, dust, and odor levels in field evaluations of a wet scrubber using an evaporative cooling pad system, and an indoor ozonation system, in swine finishing buildings. The wet pad scrubber reduced both total dust and ammonia levels by 65% at a low ventilation rate, but reduced dust mass by 20% with no change in ammonia at the maximum ventilation rate. Odor level was reduced by 16% at the high ventilation rate. The ozonation system greatly reduced indoor dust levels (by over 50%) at the maximum ventilation rate but had no beneficial effect on odors as measured using dynamic olfactometry; further measurements are being conducted to evaluate the role of dust in odor measurements to determine if a significant source of error exists in odor measurements. NC also developed and applied a filter testing system and measured dust reductions in a high efficiency filter, furnace filter plates arranged as a series of cascading baffles or as parallel plates, and a scale model of the wet pad scrubber. Results showed that the high efficiency filter was very efficient but resistant to airflow, the filter plate arrangements were substantially less efficient, and the wet pad scrubber performed similarly to the field results, with 40% dust mass reduction at a face velocity of 60 ft/min. NC also applied a dispersion model to predict PM-10 (10 micron particulates or smaller) levels around a swine finishing farm; the model indicates that the emissions could contribute significantly to PM-10 levels as much as 2 miles away.

AL, AR, and SC also evaluated alternative materials for broiler litter. AL found that sand as an alternative litter material can work well in terms of bird performance but result in dirty birds. AR is evaluating paper products and residue from paper mills and SC is evaluating shredded rubber tires with unaerated and aerated floors.

Objective 2: Quantify animal physiological and production responses to interior thermal environments in warm and cool weather.

FL, GA, and SC developed and evaluated methods for quantifying the thermal status of poultry. FL measured sensible and latent heat production of broilers over a range of temperatures and humidities and is developing a temperature-humidity index for broilers; they employed ingestible temperature transmitters and modified the transmitter design to enable several days of continuous data collection. FL also instrumented two broiler houses to measure dry bulb temperature, black globe temperature, and relative humidity as part of a cooperative project with Brazil to develop the temperature humidity index. GA evaluated implanted sensors for measuring poultry deep body temperatures and were successful in detecting body temperature variations due to the birds' diurnal rhythms and ambient temperature increases. SC continued evaluation of a comprehensive predictor of bird thermal environment involving use of black globe temperatures, relative humidity, and air velocity.

NC evaluated the use of 8 ft diameter paddle fans in a turkey research facility in hot weather; the paddle fans were associated with heavier birds (avg. 0.55 lb difference), better feed conversion (avg. 0.014 lb/lb difference), and lower mortality (77 vs. 126 birds) than horizontally blowing propeller fans, and used about 25% of the electricity of the propeller fans.

FL is comparing various calf hutch configurations to evaluate improved ventilation and roofing materials in terms of calf response in hot weather. Temperature data showed a benefit for plywood vs. metal roofs, and double roofed metal vs. single sheet metal; calf response data are being analyzed.

KY tested the swine growth computer model NCPIG by comparing model predictions with commercial farm production data; the model was within 5% of most production measures, allowing the model to be used with confidence by researchers and producers.

Objective 3: Develop and evaluate environmental control systems for poultry and livestock facilities which enhance indoor air quality, reduce energy use, and benefit animal productivity.

SC and TN evaluated alternative systems for through-floor ventilation to enhance indoor air quality; SC evaluated a litter aeration system for floor-reared broilers and TN evaluated a pit ventilation system for finishing swine. The litter aeration system was effective at reducing indoor ammonia; moving 6% of the total ventilation through the floor reduced indoor ammonia level by 60% while moving 48% of the ventilation airflow through the floor gave an 89% reduction. Since litter aeration concentrates air pollutants in a relatively small airflow rate, it could be used in conjunction with air cleaning systems to control air cleaning costs. Similarly, the pit ventilation system evaluated by TN significantly reduced indoor ammonia and hydrogen sulfide levels.

NC and GA are evaluating a wet scrubber system for reducing exhaust air dust, odor, and ammonia levels, as well as an indoor ozonation system for reducing indoor dust and odor levels, as described under Objective 1. Both methods can reduce dust levels although effects on odor are sufficiently complex to merit further analysis, e.g. to determine if dust-borne odorants are being accurately sensed. NC is also evaluating windbreak walls downwind of exhaust fans on tunnel ventilated swine buildings; they found that such walls collect dust on upwind surfaces, generally deflect fan airflow upward and, in low wind conditions, can elevate fan airflow above the surface of a downwind lagoon.

AL, AR, FL, and NC addressed energy used by various operations. AL is evaluating use of freezers for storage of poultry mortalities, including energy usage. AR is collaborating with a wood stove manufacturer to develop and evaluate a system for burning raw sawdust and poultry litter. Since phosphorus is accumulated in the combustion process, the resulting ash from poultry litter might prove more efficient for utilization. FL installed a microprocessor based monitoring system in a dairy milking parlor to monitor pump energy use, vacuum pulse wave forms, milk tank temperature, and water temperatures. As noted under Objective 2, NC capitalized on the energy efficiency of paddle fans in a turkey building to show reduced energy use in addition to improved bird performance.

In order to cool animals in warm weather, AR and KY developed and evaluated systems for sprinkling animals in conjunction with forced airflow. AR designed the sprinkling system to deliver cooling at a rates of 0.4 to 0.6 Btu/hr per lb. They are comparing a misting system in a naturally ventilated building, evaporative pad cooling in a tunnel ventilated building, and the sprinkling system in a tunnel ventilated building. Development of a control system to modulate sprinkling rate based on animal size and air temperature was initiated. Results indicate that even with increased water application, there was still less caked litter than with other systems. KY compared no cooling (control) to fan cooling only, sprinkler cooling only, and fan cooling with sprinkling in an open-front swine growing-finishing facility. Average daily gain and average daily feed intake were greater for the fan cooling plus sprinkling treatment than the other treatments. These results clearly indicate that direct wetting of animals provides effective cooling in hot weather when combined with forced airflow.

KY, NC, and NY continued evaluation of Time Integrated Value (TIV) control of ventilation and cooling systems, in which running time-averaged values of indoor air temperature are used in adjusting environmental control system operation. KY and NC are evaluating TIV control of broiler facilities. KY operated the system satisfactorily in tunnel ventilated broiler buildings. NC found that large wiring runs needed to ensure satisfactory operation of the existing thermostatic control in the event of TIV controller failure were prohibitively expensive, and that the controller is likely to be more cost-effective for tunnel ventilation than natural ventilation with numerous indoor mixing fans. NC is installing TIV control in tunnel ventilated broiler buildings. NY is evaluating TIV control of tunnel ventilated dairy buildings and measuring air temperature, humidity, and air speed. They adjusted the target temperature to 70°F which is more appropriate than the original setpoint for dairy cattle.

In addition to evaluation of TIV control, NY modified the tunnel ventilation system design to improve cooling effects. They installed horizontal air baffles across the barn to direct airflow down toward the cows; visual observation of airflow through the barn indicated that the airflow deflection effect was less than the baffle interval of 100 ft, which was also observed by NC in tunnel ventilated turkey buildings with baffles. NY installed two misting systems and incorporated them into the TIV control system.

USDA/ARS-MS and NC evaluated poultry building fan designs. USDA/ARS-MS applied a unique anemometer array they developed to measure fan airflow rates, including effects of tunnel ventilation fan placement on fan airflow and effects of belt guard design to meet regulatory restrictions on fan airflow. Placement of fans on the building sidewall causes a reduction in fan airflow for fans closer to the inlet end of the building; relocation of the most upwind fan to the end wall increased its airflow by 13%. Belt guards designed to ensure compliance with OSHA regulations caused less than 4% reductions in airflow despite area blockages of 8-10%. USDA/ARS-MS also measured fan airflow rates to determine effects of weathering of fiberglass propellers; airflow reductions of 5% were obtained for older propellers. NC successfully tested an 8 ft diameter paddle fan in a turkey building as noted under Objective 2, and developed a new friction drive for the fan with the motor shaft driving a wheel to turn the fan blades.

2. Degree to which the Objectives were Accomplished:

Considerable progress was achieved such that all three objectives, as proposed, were largely accomplished. However, some proposed procedures were not followed due to changes in program focus or other constraints. For Objective 1, dust, ammonia, and odor measurement and control methods were developed and evaluated. For Objective 2, technologies for quantifying animal responses to environments were evaluated including telemetry and preliminary thermal environment indexes (TEI's), and simulation modeling of pig response to environment was validated. For Objective 3, air mixing control systems such as large paddle fans, time-integrating (TIV) control systems, and livestock wetting and airflow systems were developed and evaluated.

3. Incomplete Work and Areas Needing Further Investigation:

Exposures of poultry and swine workers to indoor air pollutants were not measured due to delays and financial constraints in procuring adequate dust and gas measurement equipment; these exposure measurement tasks are proposed for Objective 1 of the new project. Further work is needed to enhance reliability of odor measurement methods, e.g. determining the dust vs. gaseous portions of odorants and odors. Misting effects on indoor dust levels in poultry housing (under both Objectives 1 and 3) were not measured since the study to evaluate misting for humidity control concluded that the method was not economically justifiable in cool weather, i.e. the energy requirements to make up for the latent heat of evaporation were too expensive. Several areas require further work, including refining dust-borne odor measurement methods, addressing the need for respiratory protection of workers, analyzing exhaust airflow plumes for determining air pollution dispersion, and evaluating dust suppression methods.

Under Objective 2, development of thermal environment indexes (TEI's) was not completed due to delays in developing experimental apparatus to adequately control temperature, humidity, air speed, and thermal radiation as well as a change in primary research focus at NC from thermal environment control to odor and dust control. Further work is needed to finish development of the TEI's, as proposed for the new project.

Under Objective 3, development of a mathematical model of thermal environment in tunnel ventilated housing was not completed since the TEI's were not complete. Development of a winter control system for tunnel ventilation was also not accomplished since the winter tunnel ventilation system was not developed. Further work is needed to design and evaluate tunnel ventilation systems for animal species for which tunnel ventilation has not yet been applied but would be expected to benefit substantially in hot weather, especially turkeys and dairy cattle.

4. Publications Resulting from Regional Research Project S-261:

Refereed Journal Articles

Bottcher, R.W., G.R. Baughman, R.D. Munilla, J.L. Grimes, and E. Gonder. 1998. Development of a large paddle fan for cooling poultry. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(1):87-96.

Bottcher, R.W., G.R. Baughman, and J.R. Magura. 1996. Field measurements of fan speed and power use in poultry houses. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 5(1):56-62.

Bottcher, R.W., J. Brake, G.R. Baughman, and J.R. Magura. 1995. Vertically directed mixing fans for cooling floor-raised poultry. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 11(4):591-599.

Bottcher, R.W., J.R. Magura, J.S. Young, and G.R. Baughman. 1995. Effects of tilt angles on airflow for mixing fans in poultry housing. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 11(5):721-730.

Brewer, S. K, and T. A. Costello. 1999. In-situ measurement of ammonia volatilization from broiler litter using an enclosed air chamber. Transactions of ASAE (in-press).

Bridges, T.C., R.S. Gates, K.L. Chao, L.W. Turner and H. Minagawa. 1995. Techniques for development of swine performance response surfaces. Transactions of the ASAE. 38(5):1505-1511.

Bridges, T.C., L.W. Turner, and R.S. Gates. 1998. Economic evaluation of misting-cooling systems for growing/finishing swine through modeling. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(4):425-430.

Bridges, T.C., L.W. Turner, G.L. Cromwell, and J.L. Pierce. 1995. Modeling the effects of diet formulation on nitrogen and phosphorus production in swine waste. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 11(5):731-739.

Brown-Brandl, T.M., J.A. Nienaber, and L.W. Turner. 1998. Acute heat stress effects on heat production and respiration rate in swine. Transactions of the ASAE 41(3):789-793.

Burks, T.F., L.W. Turner, R.S. Gates, T.C. Bridges, and W.L. Crist. 1998. A stochastic simulation model for predicting cow throughputs in dairy parlors. Transactions of the ASAE 41(6):1789-1797.

Chao, K.L., R.S. Gates and H. Chi. 1995. Diagnostic hardware/software system for environmental controllers. Transactions of the ASAE 38(3):939-947.

Colliver, D.G., H. Zhang, R.S. Gates and K.T. Priddy. 1995. Determination of the 1, 2 and 5% occurrences of extreme dew-point temperatures and mean coincident dry-bulb temperatures (RP-754). ASHRAE Transactions 101(2):265-286.

Ferguson, N.S., R.S. Gates, J.L. Taraba, A.H. Cantor, A.J. Pescatore, M.J. Ford, and D.J. Burnham. 1998. The effect of dietary crude protein on growth, ammonia concentration and litter

composition in broilers. Poultry Science. 77:1481-1487.

Ferguson, N.S., R.S. Gates, J.L. Taraba, A.H. Cantor, A.J. Pescatore, M.L. Straw, M.J. Ford, and D.J. Burnham. 1998. The effect of dietary protein and phosphorus on ammonia concentration

and litter composition in broilers. Poultry Science. 77:1085-1093.

Flood, C.A., Jr., J.L. Koon, R.D. Trumbull, and R.N. Brewer. 1998. Energy savings with ceiling fans in broiler houses. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(3):305-309.

R.S. Gates, D.G. Overhults and S.H. Zhang. 1996. Minimum ventilation for modern broiler facilities. Transactions of the ASAE 39(3):1135-1144.

Gates, R.S., L.W. Turner, H. Chi and J. Usry. 1995. Automated weighing of group-housed growing-finishing swine. Transactions of the ASAE. 38(5):1479-1486.

Gates, R.S., H. Zhang, D.G. Colliver and D.G. Overhults. 1995. Regional variation in temperature humidity index for poultry housing. Transactions of the ASAE 38(1):197-20.

Hamrita, T.K., G. Van Wicklen, M. Czarick, and M. Lacy. 1998. Monitoring poultry deep body temperature using biotelemetry. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(3):327-331.

Lin, J.C., B.R. Moss, J.L. Koon, C.A. Flood, R.C. Smith III, K.A. Cummins, and D.A. Coleman. 1998. Comparison of various fan, sprinkler, and mister systems in reducing heat stress in dairy cows. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(2):177-182.

Lin, J.C., B.R. Moss, J.L. Koon, C.A. Flood, S. Rowe, J.R. Martin, B. Brady, F. DeGraves, and R.C. Smith. 1997. Effect of sprinkling over the feed area and misting free stalls on milk production. J. Dairy Sci. Vol. 80, Suppl 1, p. 274.

May, J.D., B.D. Lott, and J.D. Simmons. 1997. Water consumption by broilers in high cyclic temperatures: bell vs. nipple waterers. Poultry Sci. 76:944-947.

Myer, R.O., R.A. Bucklin, and F.B. Fialho. 1998. Effects of increased dietary lysine (protein) level on performance and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs reared in a hot, humid environment. Transactions of the ASAE 41(2):447-452.

Nääs, I.A., D.J. Moura, R.A. Bucklin, and F.B. Fialho. 1998. An algorithm for determining opening effectiveness in natural ventilation by wind. Transactions of the ASAE. 41(3): 767-771.

Palmquist, R.B., F.M. Roka, and T. Vukina. 1997. Hog operations, environmental effects, and residential property values. Land Economics 73(1):114-124.

Sander, J.E., J.L. Wilson and G.L. Van Wicklen. 1995. Effect of formaldehyde exposure in the hatcher and of ventilation in confinement facilities on broiler performance. Avian Diseases 39(2):420 424.

Simmons, J. D. and B.D. Lott. 1996. Evaporative cooling performance resulting from changes in water temperature. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 12:497-500.

Simmons, J.D. and B.D. Lott. 1997. Computer controlled fogging. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 13(4):525-530.

Simmons, J.D. and B.D. Lott. 1997. Technical Note: Reduction of poultry ventilation fan output due to shutters. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 13(5):671-673.

Simmons, J.D., T.E. Hannigan, and B.D. Lott. 1998. A portable anemometer to determine the output of large in-place ventilation fans. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(6):649-653.

Simmons, J.D., B.D. Lott, and T.E. Hannigan. 1998. Minimum distance between ventilation fans in adjacent walls of tunnel ventilated broiler houses. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(5):533-535.

Simmons, J.D., B.D. Lott, and J.D. May. 1997. Heat loss from broiler chickens subjected to various wind speeds and ambient temperatures. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 13(5):665- 669.

Singletary, I.B., R.W. Bottcher, and G.R. Baughman. 1996. Characterizing humidity effects on misting evaporative efficiency. Transactions of the ASAE 39(5):1801-1809.

Thomas, C.V., M.A. DeLorenzo, D.R. Bray, R.N. Weldon, R.A. Bucklin, and J.G. Martin, III. 1997. A stochastic economic analysis of large herringbone and parallel milking parlors. Journal of Dairy Science. 80(10): 2418-2428.

Timmons, M.B., R.S. Gates, R.W. Bottcher, T.A. Carter, J. Brake, and M.J. Wineland. 1995. Simulation analysis of a new temperature control method for poultry housing. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 62:237-245.

Turner, L.W., T.C. Bridges, R.D. Coffey, R.S. Gates, G.R. Parker, T.M. Brown-Brandl, and D.G. Overhults. 1998. Comparison of observed and simulated grow-finish swine performance under summer conditions. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(4):419-423.

Turner, L.W., T.C. Bridges, R.S. Gates, R. Coffey, G. Parker, T.M. Brown-Brandl, and D.G. Overhults. 1998. Comparison of observed and simulated grow-finish swine performance under summer conditions. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14(4):419-423.

van Horne, P.L.M., J. Brake, and C.M. Williams. 1998. Economics of controlling ammonia emission from commercial layer farms. J. of Applied Poultry Research 7:61-68.

Xin, H., I.L. Berry, and G.T. Tabler. 1996. Minimum ventilation requirement and associated energy cost for aerial ammonia control in broiler houses. Transactions of the ASAE 39(2): 645-648.

Zhang, H., R.S. Gates, and D.G. Colliver. 1997. Psychrometric Turing Machine. Transactions of the ASAE 40(3):823-831.

Book Chapters

Bottcher, R.W. and R.D. Munilla. 1997. Indoor environmental hazards in animal housing. Chapter 25 in Safety and Health in Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries. R.L. Langley, R.L. McLymore, W.J. Meggs, and G.T. Roberson, eds. Government Institutes, Inc., Rockville, Maryland. pp. 419-438.

Abstracts

Bottcher, R.W., G.R. Baughman, R.D. Munilla, J.L. Grimes, and E. Gonder. 1997. Development of a large paddle fan for cooling poultry. Poultry Sci. 76(Suppl. 1):141.

Bottcher, R.W., G.R. Baughman, and J.R. Magura. 1995. Field evaluation of fan performance. Poultry Sci. 74(Suppl. 1):179.

Lott, B. D., May, J. D., and Simmons, J. D. The Effect of Environmental Temperature on Growth Rate and Feed:Gain of Mail Broilers at Different Weights. Poultry Sci. 76-Supplement 1:27. 1997.

Lott, B. D., May, J. D., and Simmons, J. D. Air velocity and effective air temperature. Poultry Sci. 76-Supplement 1:141. 1997.

May, J. D., Lott, B. D., and Simmons, J. D. Environmental conditions in a tunnel house during broiler growout. Poultry Sci. 76-Supplement 1:141. 1997.

May, J. D., Lott, B. D., and Simmons, J. D. Temperature Set Points for Profitable Fan and Fogger Operation for Broiler Tunnel Houses. Poultry Sci. 76-Supplement 1:1. 1997.

Simmons, J. D., Hannigan, T. E., and Lott, B. D. Volumetric air flow and airflow patterns in tunnel ventilated broiler houses. Poultry Sci. 76-Supplement 1:141. 1997.

Simmons, J. D., Hannigan, T. E., and Lott, B. D. The Role of Fan Placement in Volumetric Flow Rates. Poultry Sci. 76-Supplement 1:2. 1997.

Proceedings and Papers Presented at Professional Meetings

Allen, W.H., B.L. Hughes, J.D. Simmons, and D.E. Linvill. 1998. A comprehensive predictor of animal thermal environment. ASAE Paper No. 98-4028, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Allen, W.H., B.L. Hughes, J.P. Chastain, P.A. Skewes, W.C. Bridges, R. Armstrong, and J. Thomas. 1998. Aeration of poultry broiler litter to reduce production of odor and hazardous gas. ASAE Paper No. 98-4168, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Baughman, G.R., R.W. Bottcher, R.D. Munilla, and J.L. Grimes. 1998. Field evaluation of large paddle fans in a turkey research building. ASAE Paper No. 984043, Presented at the 1998 ASAE Annual International Meeting, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659. 15 pp.

Bottcher, R.W., G.R. Baughman, R.D. Munilla, J.L. Grimes, E. Gonder, and W.L. Miller. 1996. Large paddle fans for turkey growout housing. ASAE Paper No. 964105, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Bottcher, R.W., G.R. Baughman, J.R. Magura, M.J. Wineland, and M.G. Carnes. 1995. Misting systems for humidity control in broiler houses during cool weather. ASAE Paper No. 954474, Presented at the 1995 Annual Meeting, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659.

Bottcher, R.W., G.R. Baughman, R.D. Munilla, J. Brake, J.L. Grimes, and J.D. Garlich. 1997. Utilizing vertically directed air movers in poultry buildings. p. 748-755 in: Livestock Environment V Volume II, Proceedings of the Fifth International Livestock Environment Symposium, R.W. Bottcher and S.J. Hoff, eds. ASAE Publication 01-97, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Bottcher, R.W., K.M. Keener, G.R. Baughman, R.D. Munilla, and K.E. Parbst. 1998. Windbreak walls for modifying airflow and emissions from tunnel ventilated swine buildings. pp. 639-644 in: Animal Production Systems and the Environment: An International Conference on Odor, Water Quality, Nutrient Management and Socioeconomic Issues, Proceedings Vol. II, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.

Bottcher, R.W., K.M. Keener, G.R. Baughman, R.D. Munilla, and K.E. Parbst. 1998. Field and model evaluations of windbreak walls for modifying emissions from tunnel ventilated swine buildings. ASAE Paper No. 984071, Presented at the 1998 ASAE Annual International Meeting, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659. 6 pp.

Bottcher, R.W., R.D. Munilla, K.M. Keener, and G.R. Baughman. 1999. Controlling dust and odors from buildings using windbreak walls. pp. 128-134 in: Proceedings of the 1999 Animal Waste Management Symposium, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695.

Bottcher, R.W., K.M. Keener, R.D. Munilla, K.E. Parbst, and G.L. Van Wicklen. 1999. Field evaluation of a wet pad scrubber for odor and dust control. pp. 243-246 in: Proc. of the 1999 Animal Waste Management Symposium, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695.

Bottcher, R.W., R.D. Munilla, K.M. Keener, K.E. Parbst, and G.L. Van Wicklen. 1999. Windbreak walls and wet pad scrubbers for reducing odorous dust emissions from tunnel ventilated swine buildings. Proc. of the International Symposium on Dust Control in Animal Production Facilities, 30 May - 2 June 1999, Aarhus, Denmark. Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Horsens, Denmark. pp. 186-193.

Bray, D. R., R. A. Bucklin, J. K. Shearer, R. Montoya and R. Giesy. 1997. Reduction of environmental stress in adult and young dairy cattle in hot, humid climates. Livestock Environment V. ASAE Publication 01-97. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI 49085. pp 672-679.

Bray, D. R., R. A. Bucklin, R. Montoya and R. Giesy. 1996. Heat stress management: facilities, equipment and strategies. First International Tropical Dairying Symposium. San Juan, Puerto Rico. May 1996.

Bray, D. R., R. A. Bucklin, R. E. Montoya and R. Giesy. 1996. Environmental modifications to reduce heat stress. International Livestock Symposium. Tampa, Florida. May, 1996.

Bray, D. R., P. A. Fowler, F. B. Fialho, R. A. Bucklin, S. Yeralan, T. Tran and R. K. Braun. 1998. An Automated System for Monitoring Milking System Parameters. In: Chastain, J. P., Ed. Proceedings of the Fourth International Dairy Housing Conference. ASAE Publication 01-98. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St Joseph, MI 49085. pp17-24.

Brewer, S. K. and T. A. Costello. 1997. In-situ measurement of ammonia volatilization from broiler litter using an enclosed air chamber. ASAE Paper 97-4068. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Bridges, T. C., L. W. Turner, and R. S. Gates. 1997. Economic Evaluation of the Effect of Summertime Environments for Growing/Finishing Swine in Central Kentucky. Livestock Environment V. ASAE Publication 01-97. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI. pp 1024-1031.

Brown-Brandl, T.M., L.W. Turner, T.C. Bridges, and J.A. Nienaber. 1998. Comparison of observed and simulated finishing barrows under two different feeding restrictions. ASAE Paper No. 984023. International Meeting of ASAE. Orlando, Florida. July 12-15.

Brown-Brandl, T.M., J.A. Nienaber, J.T. Yen, and L.W. Turner. 1998. Effects of manual and thermal induced feeding restriction on heat production, activity, and organ weights of finishing barrows. ASAE Paper No. 984025. International Meeting of ASAE. Orlando, Florida. July 12-15.

Bucklin, R. A. 1997. Sprinkling Birds: A New Method for Combating Heat Stress? Proceedings of the 1997 Florida Poultry Institute. September 30-October 1, Gainesville, Florida. pp 52-54.

Cantor, A.H., D. Burnham, A.J. Pescatore, R.S. Gates, N.S. Ferguson, M.J. Ford, and M.L. Straw. 1998. Influence of protein and amino acid levels in grower diets on broiler performance. Southern Poultry Science Society and Southern Conference on Avian Diseases. 1998 Annual Mtg, Jan 19-20, Atlanta GA.

Ferguson, N. S., R. S. Gates, J. L. Taraba, A. J. Pescatore, M. L. Straw, M. J. Ford, L. W. Turner, and D. J. Burnham. 1997. Reduced N and P Waste Production for Broilers through Diet Manipulation. ASAE Paper No. 974034, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Ferguson, N. S., R. S. Gates, A. H. Cantor, J. L. Taraba, A. J. Pescatore, M. L. Straw, M. J. Ford, L. W. Turner, and D. J. Burnham. 1997. Effects of Dietary Crude Protein on Growth, Ammonia Concentration and Litter Composition in Broilers. ASAE Paper No. 974069, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Fialho, F. B., P. A. Fowler, D. R. Bray, R. A. Bucklin, S. Yeralan, T. Tran and R. K. Braun. 1997. A Microcontroller Based System for Monitoring Vacuum Pulses in Milking Machines. ASAE Paper No. 97-FL100. ASAE, St. Joseph Michigan.

Fialho, F. B., R. Myer, R. A. Bucklin and F. S. Zazueta. 1997. Simulation model of swine growth and development. Livestock Environment V. ASAE Publication 01-97. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI 49085. pp 1047-1054.

Fialho, F. B., R. A. Bucklin, F. S. Zazueta and R. Myer. 1997. Simulation model of heat balance in swine. Livestock Environment V. ASAE Publication 01-97. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI 49085. pp 1040-1046.

Gates, R.S., A.H. Cantor, D. Burnham, J.L. Taraba, A.J. Pescatore, N.S. Ferguson, M.J. Ford, M.L. Straw, and K. Liberty. 1998. Effect of protein and amino acid levels in broiler growth diets on litter ammonia concentration. Southern Poultry Science Society and Southern Conference on Avian Diseases. 1998 Annual Mtg, Jan. 19-20, Atlanta GA.

Gates, R.S., K. Chao, and N. Sigrimis. 1998. Design parameters for fuzzy-based control of agricultural ventilation systems. In: Proc. of the 1st IFAC Workship on Control Applications and Ergonomics in Agriculture. N. Sigrimis, Ed., P. Groubos, Co.-Ed. International Federation of Automatic Control, IFAC Publications, Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK. pp 137-142. June 15-17.

Gates, R.S., J.L. Taraba, and K. Liberty. 1998. Precision nutrition and litter volatilization dynamics. Proc. National Poultry Waste Management Symposium, October 19-21, Springdale AR.

Gates, R. S., J. L. Taraba, N. S. Ferguson. 1997. A Technique for Determining Ammonia Equilibrium and Volatilization from Broiler Litter. ASAE Paper No. 974074, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Gates, R.S., M.B. Timmons, D.G. Overhults, and R.W. Bottcher. 1997. Fuzzy reasoning for environment control during periods of heat stress. p. 553-562 in: Livestock Environment V Volume I, Proceedings of the Fifth International Livestock Environment Symposium, R.W. Bottcher and S.J. Hoff, eds. ASAE Publication 01-97, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Hoff, S.J., D.S. Bundy, and R.W. Bottcher. 1998. Strategies for reducing exhaust-air odors. pp. 655-660 in: Animal Production Systems and the Environment: An International Conference on Odor, Water Quality, Nutrient Management and Socioeconomic Issues, Proceedings Vol. II, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.

Keener, K.M., R.W. Bottcher, R.D. Munilla, K.E. Parbst, and G.L. Van Wicklen. 1999. Field evaluation of an indoor ozonation system for odor control. pp. 310-313 in: Proceedings of the 1999 Animal Waste Management Symposium, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695.

Koon, J.L. and C.A. Flood, Jr. 1996. Cooling broilers with misting and high velocity air at bird level. ASAE Paper No. 964110, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Myer, R. and R. A. Bucklin. 1997. Increased dietary Lysine (protein) level and performance and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs reared in a hot, humid environment. Livestock Environment V. ASAE Publication 01-97. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI 49085. pp 443-452.

Overhults, D. G. and R. S. Gates. 1997. Energy requirements for operating tunnel ventilation broiler houses. Livestock Environment V. ASAE Publication 01-97. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI. pp 859-865.

Parbst, K.E., R.W. Bottcher, and S.J. Hoff. 1998. Scrubbing parameters for odor abatement in a pilot scale testing facility. pp. 661-666 in: Animal Production Systems and the Environment: An International Conference on Odor, Water Quality, Nutrient Management and Socioeconomic Issues, Proceedings Vol. II, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.

Paul, R.M., L.W. Turner, B.T. Larson, and M.C. Udal. 1998. Effects of shade on tympanic temperatures and breeding efficiency of grazing beef cows. ASAE Paper No. 984029. International Meeting of ASAE. Orlando, Florida. July 12-15.

Pohl, S.H., L.W. Turner, and J.A. Nienaber. 1998. Comparison of observed and simulated environmental effects on growing swine performance. ASAE Paper No. 984023. International Meeting of ASAE. Orlando, Florida. July 12-15.

Simmons, J. D., T.W. Hannigan, and B.D. Lott. 1998. Flow rate variations resulting from placement of large fans in tunnel ventilated broiler houses. ASAE Paper No. 98-4037, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Sudharshan, B.B., I.L. Berry, and G.T. Tabler. 1996. A model and testing of an air-to-air heat exchanger for broiler houses. ASAE Paper No. 964104, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Turner, L.W. 1998. Fan and high pressure mist (fog) system performance for cooling lactating cows. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Dairy Housing Conference, St. Louis, Missouri. J.P. Chastain, Ed. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI. pp. 201-208. January.

Turner, L.W., T.C. Bridges, and R.S. Gates. 1998. Use of the NCPIG swine growth model for heat stress assessment. In: Proc. of the 1st IFAC Workshop on Control Applications and Ergonomics in Agriculture. N. Sigrimis, Ed., P. Groubos, Co.-Ed. International Federation of Automatic Control, IFAC Publications, Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford. pp. 149-154. June 15-17.

Turner. L. W., T. C. Bridges, R. Coffey, R. S. Gates, G. Parker, T. M. Brown-Brandl, and D. G.

Overhults. 1997. Comparison of Observed and Simulated Grow-Finish Swine Performance Under Summer Conditions. Livestock Environment V. ASAE Publication 01-97. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI. pp. 1032-1039.

Turner, L.W., G.L. Cromwell, T.C. Bridges, S. Carter and R.S. Gates. 1996. Ammonia emission from swine waste as influenced by diet manipulation. pp. 453-458, in International Conference on Air Pollution from Agricultural Operations. Westin Crown Center, Kansas City, MO. Midwest Plan Service, Ames, IA. February 7-9.

Turner, L. W., R. S. Gates, C. M. Wathes, and E. Audsley. 1997. Using Fuzzy Logic for Assessment of Dust and Ammonia Effects on Swine Respiratory Disease. Livestock Environment V. ASAE Publication 01-97. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI. pp 638-646.

Turner, L. W., J. A. Nienaber, and T. M. Brown-Brandl. 1997. Environment/nutrition interactions and implications. Proceedings of Swine Summit 97. Heartland Lysine Inc., 8430 Brywn Mawr Ave., Suite 650, Chicago, IL. June

Turner, L.W., R.S. Gates, G.L. Cromwell, J.L. Taraba, and H.J. Monegue. 1998. Continuous measurement of ammonia and harmful gaseous emissions from simulated manure pits. ASAE Paper No. 984059. International Meeting of ASAE. Orlando, Florida. July 12-15.

Van Wicklen, G.L. 1995. Modeling particle deposition in the avian respiratory system. ASAE Paper No. 954587. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Van Wicklen, E.W. Tollner, J.E. Sander, T.L. Foutz. 1995. Using CT scanning to assess respirable particle deposition in Broiler Chickens. ASAE Paper 944024, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Van Wicklen, G.L., S.A. Thompson, G.R. Rowland, F.R. Smith and T.L. Foutz. 1996. Design of a ratite hatchery building with humidity considerations. ASAE Paper No. 964111. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Van Wicklen, G.L., T.L. Foutz, G.N. Rowland and E.W. Tollner. 1996. Assessment of broiler respiratory tissue after exposure to respirable aerosols. Proceedings of the International Conference on Air Pollution from Agricultural Operations. Midwest Plan Service, Ames, IA. pp. 363 367.

Wilhelm, L.R. and D.B. McKinney. 1998. Cold Weather Gas Level measurements in Swine Houses with and without Pit-Ventilation. ASAE Paper No. 984075. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Young, J.S., J.J. Classen, R.W. Bottcher, and P.W. Westerman. 1997. Design, construction, and validation of a pilot-scale biofiltration system for the reduction of swine odor. ASAE Paper No. 974039, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

Young, J.S., J.J. Classen, R.W. Bottcher, and P.W. Westerman. 1997. Biofiltration system for testing the reduction of odor from swine buildings. p. 521-528 in: Ammonia and Odour Control from Animal Production Facilities, Proceedings of the International Symposium, Volume 2, J.A.M. Voermans and G. Monteny, eds. NVTL, Rosmalen, The Netherlands.

Theses

A total of 3 Master of Science theses and 2 Ph.D. dissertations resulted from the research activities of Regional Research Project S-261.

Regional Project Title: Systems for Controlling Air Pollutant Emissions and Indoor Environments of Poultry and Livestock Facilities

/S/ George Kriz

Administrative Advisor	Date

/S/ Jerry A. Cherry by T. J. Helms

Chair, Regional Association of Directors	Date

Administrator	Date

Cooperative State Research Service

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